Legend of the Mythical Land: Gods and Buddhas

 About 10 minutes west of Tottori City on National Route 9, you'll find Shirousagi Beach, famous for its legend of the white rabbit, Inaba. Continuing westward, you'll come across Mt. Daisen and Yumigahaman Peninsula, associated with the legend of the divine ruler. If you proceed further west, you'll eventually reach Izumo Taisha, the Great Shrine of Izumo. This ancient region of Izumo, spanning from present-day Shimane Prefecture to Tottori Prefecture, is the setting for the legends of the powerful clans that once ruled there. It is said that Ōkuninushi no Mikoto governed the Izumo region before eventually transferring rulership to Amaterasu Ōmikami, the Sun Goddess.

Humans possess the remarkable ability to exchange their experiences through the medium of language. This exchange occurs through the art of conversation, and with the advent of written communication, its reach extends both across time and space, expanding the horizons of human interaction. It is in this expansive realm that records are born, and history takes its shape.

At the core of our understanding lies the profound act of ascribing meaning to our environment. This process, rooted in the rich tapestry of symbolic expression, forms the bedrock of human thought. It is within this realm of symbols that the lofty endeavors of the human spirit, encompassing the realms of religion, art, and science, find their genesis. 

Indeed, the very fabric of our existence rebels against a world devoid of significance, for we are driven to imbue events with purpose, weaving intricate cosmologies, worldviews, and societal narratives within the fabric of time and space.Mythology permeates every primal culture, playing a pivotal role in the construction of human symbolism. The divide between the mythical worldview and that of contemporary individuals is not as vast as one might think. Mythology is not merely a whimsical flight of fancy or a product of idle imagination. It was fashioned when humans sought to harness the overwhelming forces of nature surrounding them, when they embarked upon the endeavor to create civilization.

Humans cannot exist in a world devoid of meaning. Put differently, living without religion is an impossibility. Every individual, as well as society itself, harbors the notion of something unseen lurking behind natural phenomena—be it gods, supernatural abilities, or spirits. When we encounter extraordinary occurrences, we attribute meaning to them as the workings of supernatural beings or deities.

As language and consciousness emerged within humans, legends found expression in words, evolving into the narratives of mythology. Eventually, these tales were inscribed in written texts, carrying them forward to future generations.

During the 4th to 5th centuries, a wave of migrants from the continent and the Korean Peninsula arrived in Japan, bringing with them the introduction of Chinese characters. This marked a shift from the oral traditions of the Jomon period to the era of written language. Accounts like the "Records of the Wa People" found in the Wei Zhi, which mention figures like Queen Himiko and the realm of Yamatai, shed light on this period. In ancient Japan, the imperial clan, tracing their lineage back to the western regions and the Izumo clan, gradually subjugated other clans, thereby unifying the land and establishing their political authority in the Yamato region. It was during the reign of Emperor Keitai, the 26th monarch in the imperial lineage, that the ancient Yamato government began to solidify its power.

Once upon a time, during the age of gods, humans and deities coexisted as an inseparable whole. Greek mythology shares many similarities with Japanese mythology. The world was in a state of chaos, from which the goddess Gaia, the Earth, emerged alongside the sky god Uranus, creating the heavens and the earth. In this narrative, the gods behaved much like humans within nature, experiencing a range of emotions and driving the unfolding of stories. In Greece, humans could hear the voices of gods and, like puppets manipulated by them, engaged in battles and made decisions. On the other hand, in Japanese mythology, Izanami and Izanagi created the land of Japan, and gods were akin to humans, actively participating in the world.

In a similar vein to the Greek myth of Orpheus venturing into the underworld to retrieve his wife but breaking the promise not to look back, thus losing her, there is a tale in Japanese mythology where Izanagi goes to the realm of the dead to retrieve his deceased wife, Izanami. However, he witnesses a forbidden sight in the underworld, and upon escaping from Yomi, the land of the dead, Izanagi performs a purification ritual in the sunny lands. In Japan, according to mythology, Yomi was located at Iwaya no Yashiro in Izumo Province, serving as the boundary between the mortal realm and the underworld. Over time, with the advent of Buddhism, this realm of Yomi transformed into the subterranean realm known as "Ne-no-Kuni" or hell.

Izanagi and Izanami gave birth to three noble children: Amaterasu Ōmikami, who was tasked with ruling Takamagahara (the Heavenly Plains); Tsukuyomi no Mikoto, who presided over Yomotsukuni (the Land of Night); and Susanoo no Mikoto, who was given dominion over the seas. However, Susanoo, yearning to be reunited with his departed mother, Izanami, wept and lamented. His actions disrupted the sacred rituals of Amaterasu, leading to his expulsion from that land. Before heading to his place of exile, Susanoo visited Takamagahara to explain his intentions. Fearing that he might seize control of Takamagahara, Amaterasu armed herself and questioned why he was ascending. In response, Susanoo declared that he held no evil or malicious intent within his heart. It is in this story that we glimpse the essence of the pure heart, which has been revered in ancient Japan.

Subsequently, Susanoo, while being banished to the realm of Ne-no-Kuni, where he was seen as a malevolent deity disrupting agriculture, became a hero in the Izumo myth by slaying the fearsome Yamata-no-Orochi. Eventually, Ōnamuji, who rescued the peeled white rabbit, married Susanoo's daughter and established the land of Izumo. The story concludes with him relinquishing the rule of the land to Amaterasu.

The Kojiki, an ancient text, depicts the principles of action of the people and the gods. As symbols of extraordinary power, there are Tama and Kami. Kami encompasses not only noble, virtuous, and courageous beings but also includes malevolent, mysterious, and strange entities. Revered and awe-inspiring, they possess abilities beyond the ordinary, and everything from humans to birds, animals, mountains, rivers, and plants can be considered Kami. Through rituals and spells, the Tama is pacified and purged to ward off extraordinary blessings or calamities from everyday life. By calming the Tama and Kami, purifying with rites, and performing misogi, impurities and spiritual afflictions are cleansed. Alongside the purification of the spirit, impurities are washed away through the act of cleansing. This meaning of purification by misogi symbolizes the ancient prototype of thought in ancient Japan, which has been inherited by Shinto.

It is believed that these practices formed the basis of ancient Japanese thinking and were passed down to Shinto, thus becoming an integral part of the nation's cultural heritage.

By the 3rd century AD, a transition from pure sorcery to ritualistic practices became evident. It marked a shift from sorcerers dispelling calamities and inviting blessings through a world of fortune and misfortune, where humans defying the divine order faced disasters, equating them with sin and the birth of moral consciousness. This evolution led to a transformation in the supplication and worship of spirits into prayers and reverence directed towards the gods. From prayers to the gods, ceremonies gradually emerged as symbols of divine faith.

As sorcery transformed into ritual, the role of the Emperor evolved into the highest priest of Shinto, conducting ceremonies and rituals. Shinto priests were dispatched by the Emperor to oversee the operation of shrines and perform sacred rites, leading to the development of Shinto.

The Nihon Shoki, or "The Chronicles of Japan," records the existence of countless deities predating the introduction of Buddhism. Buddhism officially arrived in Japan around 552 AD when Emperor Kinmei received a set of Buddhist paraphernalia and scriptures as an offering from King Seong of Baekje. In the Nihon Shoki, it raises the question, "Shall we accept the appearance of the Buddha, which has never been seen before? Should we pay homage or not?" Soga no Umako, a powerful minister, proclaimed that Japan had no opposition to Buddhism. On the other hand, the Mononobe clan argued, "We should continue worshiping the 180 gods of heaven, earth, and the imperial ancestors throughout the four seasons. If we now begin to worship foreign gods, we may incur the wrath of our national gods." They opposed its acceptance.

 During that time, the Soga clan gained power over the Mononobe clan and officially recognized Buddhism in Japan.Supported by the Soga clan, Prince Shotoku, under his Seventeen-Article Constitution, implemented a policy that revered the Three Treasures of Buddhism: the Buddha, the Dharma, and the Sangha. Over time, the clan's Buddhism gradually transformed into a state religion, with the emperor serving as its protector. Within the Seventeen-Article Constitution, the existence of Japan as a nation and the authority of its politics were emphasized through Buddhist and universalistic principles of justice. In this manner, the indigenous beliefs of Japan found support in Buddhist ideology, spreading throughout the entire land.

Japanese animism and Haiku Birth of humans language

 "In all their glory, orchids bloom, under the daytime star so clear, mushrooms spring from the earth in bloom.”

                                                                                                     kyosi Takahama

Living organisms have evolved to perceive and adapt to various noises and information from the environment on Earth through their nervous systems and the five senses. Amoebas perceive and respond to pleasure and discomfort by approaching or distancing themselves from stimuli. Frogs perceive the world as being composed of rapidly moving shadows and instinctively catch prey or leap accordingly. As mammals, they recognize objects existing in space and act accordingly to feed and live. Herbivores move in search of food, plants or fodder, while carnivores move and hunt for those herbivores.

• 
  

humans and their primate counterparts, such gorillas, lived in the forests like their companions in the African savanna.While spatial awareness was well developed,the concept of time did not exist.To adapt to new environments outside of the African savanna ,Homo sapiens, human developed language.

Language cuts, fits, and organizes the world, allowing us to create infinite new things through the use of metaphors. This symbolic manipulation gave birth to a cosmology with space and time. Humans began to construct time in the same way they do with space, enabling them to reference the past, anticipate the future, and acquire the ability to prepare for it. The capacity to abstractly recall and conceptualize events that have never occurred, treating them as if they were real experiences, enabled the creation of the future.

This extends to imagining oneself in a world beyond one's own existence. Contemplating one's family after death, considering how one will be evaluated or whether they will be held in esteem, gives rise to a perspective on life and death. Death is seen as the soul departing the body and being reborn in another world. Eventually, it becomes evident that one's body is not solely their own. It is connected to the deceased and the remaining individuals. This connection is fostered through practices like lighting fires during the Bon Festival, and the narrative of reincarnation and the cycle of life emerges.

Moreover, humans gain the ability to imagine, understand, and empathize with others and treat them with the same consideration as themselves.

For humanity, the initial cosmology perceived time as an infinite cycle of interconnectedness, repetitions, and patterns. The entire world was seen as a small, enclosed space where events were perceived to rhythmically repeat and recur. During the Jomon period, a life dominated by hunting, characterized by instability, solitude, and dependence on chance, gave rise to a worldview governed by this perception. When faced with unsolvable problems, narratives and rituals were born to make them comprehensible and provide solutions.

In this Jomon period's mystical worldview, everything possessed spirits that governed the world. Within this world governed by spirits, magic was employed through rituals to imbue prey with supernatural powers, attracting and capturing them for sustenance through hunting. After the hunt, efforts were made to appease the spirits of the slain animals, seeking protection from their vengeance and praying for blessings to ensure success in future hunts.

This practice persisted until recently in the Ainu bear festival. Participants would sing and dance, performing a dance that symbolized the killing of a bear. They would actually strangle and kill a bear, then worship its spirit, offering gratitude, solace, and ultimately consuming its meat. This ceremony, known as "Iyomante," remained a sacred ritual until recent times. In Ainu society, bears were considered both primary deities and a vital food source, while also being formidable creatures that could pose a threat to humans. The act of killing the bear, consuming its meat, and comforting its spirit encompassed the paradoxical nature of this relationship, bringing a sense of tranquility to the conflicting emotions through the practice of magic and ritual.

Language, once it emerged, shaped the world in which we reside through its symbolic function. The concept of the "real world" is constructed based on the linguistic customs of a particular community. During the Jomon period, as seen in present-day Papua New Guinea, language varied from region to region and was not unified as Japanese. Language not only serves as a means to express the external world and transmit information through words but also plays a role in metonymy, where the original meaning is replaced by a different concept within the same language.

 It is through this linguistic ability in human beings that art emerged alongside magic. Jomon pottery, which served as artistic creations of that era, was not characterized by small and harmonious styles. Instead, it exhibited asymmetry, dynamic patterns, and a three-dimensional composition, going beyond flatness. The patterns depicted on the pottery became art imbued with a sense of the magical.

During the Jomon period, which lasted for over ten thousand years, people looked up at the stars and moon in the sky and lived surrounded by the forests of Jomon. They relied on hunting and gathering for their livelihoods, and in coastal regions, they thrived on the abundant resources from the sea. They worshipped the moon in nature, revered living creatures, and shaped their way of life based on an understanding of the animistic world. The practice of magic, aimed at harmonizing the conflicts between the celestial and earthly realms, as well as the creation of monumental artworks, played significant roles in their lives.

In the Japanese archipelago, the culture of the Jomon period, with its ritual system, encountered a new influx of people, the Yayoi, from the continent, who brought with them the use of Chinese characters. People migrated to the Japanese archipelago through various routes. Subsequently, the introduction of rice cultivation led to the establishment of settled communities, and the scattered populations across Japan eventually coalesced into a unified country. It was within this context that mythology and religion emerged as narratives that bound together the communities.

With the transmission of writing, these communities began recording their traditions and cultures, creating belief systems to preserve and transmit their cultural heritage. Buddhism also arrived, and as the diverse communities across the archipelago became unified, ancient animistic beliefs and magic gradually gave way to the incorporation of religion into society. Over time, within the unique cultural landscape of Japan, Shinto and Buddhism merged, and Confucianism, along with other beliefs, became intertwined and underwent transformations.

In the subsequent history of Japanese religion, Ryunosuke Akutagawa described in "The Smiles of the Gods" that "the political philosophy of Laozi and the teachings of Confucianism, born out of fierce struggles with reality, as well as the teachings of the Buddha on the cyclical nature of rebirth and resignation, and the dream of Christ rejecting reality to pursue eternity—all of these have quietly been absorbed within the beautiful scenery and gentle climate over the course of two thousand years." Thus, the spiritual history of Japan's worldview was born.

As human brains developed, language emerged, allowing us to perceive and understand the world through the power of metaphor. This enabled us to analogize with animals, plants, stones, and nature itself, giving rise to a world of animism where stories, poetry, and art were created. Understanding the world involved embracing an animistic worldview, and the creation of magic, art, and poetry emerged alongside language."One aspect where this remains strongly present today is perhaps in the haiku poetry of the Edo period. In the Manyoshu, there are even instances where snow is described as the incarnation of the ice deity, brought down by a dragon. 

However, subsequent tanka poetry tended to depict more realistic human emotions, gradually distancing itself from nature. During the Edo period, the haiku of Basho and Buson, which were unconventional, revived the expression of Japanese animism, asserting that animals, plants, stones, and the sea possess souls, rather than relying on personification.

Buson's haiku"Behold the springtime sea – an endless flow, a ceaseless becoming, ever the same, ever renewed.”

Bashous haiku "The octopus pot, under the summer moon, harbors fleeting dreams – a testament to our transient existence.

神話の国の物語 オデッセイアと古事記

　 国道９号線を鳥取市から西に１０分ほどでイナバのシロウサギ伝説の白兎海岸が見られ、そのまま西へ走ると国引き伝説の大山と弓浜半島、さらに西に進むと出雲大社にたどり着く。この古代出雲地方の伝説、出雲神話は現在の島根県から鳥取県にかけて支配した豪族の物語で、出雲地方は大国主命が治め、その後天照大神に国譲りしたと記されている。

　人は言葉によって経験を互いに交換できる。それが会話であり、文字の発明によってそれが、時間的にも空間的にも拡大する。そして記録が生まれ、歴史が生まれた。

人間は、環境への意味をつけて理解する。この意味ずけ、シンボルの世界が思想の底辺にあり、宗教や芸術、科学などの人間精神の高度の活動様式はシンボルの世界の産物である。人間は全く無意味な混沌の世界には耐えられない。出来事を、時間と空間の中に意味ずけて、宇宙像、世界像、世間像を作る。

　神話はあらゆる原始文化に存在し、人間のシンボルの構築に大きな役割をはたす。神話的世界像と現代人の世界像の間にはそれほどの隔たりはない。神話は、たんなる気まぐれの幻想、思いつきの所産ではない。人間が自己をとりまく圧倒的自然をコントロールしようとしたとき、すなわち人間が文明をつくったとき、神話は造られた。

　人間は意味ない世界に生きられない。言いかえれば宗教のない世界で生きてゆくことはできない。いかなる人も社会も自然的事象の背後に潜む見えない何ものか、神々、超人的能力、精霊の観念を持っている。われわれが非日常的なことに遭遇したときそれを、超自然的な精霊や神々のからの働きかけとして、これを意味ずける。

　人間に言葉と意識が生まれ、伝説は言語化され、神話の物語となる。そしてそれが書物となり後の世に伝わる。

　４世紀から５世紀にかけて、大陸や朝鮮半島から渡来人が、日本にやってきて漢字が入ってくる。こうして縄文以来の語り部の言葉から、文字の時代になる。魏志倭人伝の卑弥呼や邪馬台の記載はこのころのことで、古代、日本社会では天皇氏が他の氏族を征服していく、天皇の祖先が日本の西から、出雲一族など異族集団を打ち破りしだいに日本を統合して大和に政権を打ち立てた。６世紀古代の大和政権は継体天皇（２６代）の代で確立しつつあった。

　昔々、神の時代は人間と神は渾然として一体であった。ギリシャ神話は、日本の神話とかなり似たところがある。世界はカオスであった。そこから大地の女神ガイアが生まれ、天空の神ウラノスとともに天地を創造した。そして、自然の中で神々が人間と似たように振舞い、喜怒哀楽を持って、物語を展開する。そしてそのギリシャでは神の声を人間は聞いて、そのあやつり人形のように戦い、決断する。一方、日本の神話では、イザナミとイサナギが日本の大地を創造する、神は人であり、神がそこでは人間と同じように活躍する。

　ギリシャ神話のオルフェウスが妻を取り戻しに冥界に行って、後ろを振り返らないという約束を破ったために妻を失う物語同じように、死亡した妻イザナミを取り戻しに行ったイザナギが冥界でみてはいけない姿を見た、そしてイザナギは黄泉の国から逃げ帰り、日向でミソギをした物語がある。日本では、その黄泉の国は、神話では、出雲国のイフヤ坂にあり、この世との境になっていた。この黄泉の国はやがて仏教が入ってきてから、地下の根の国になり、地獄になった。

　イサナギとイザナミが３貴子を生み、天照大神に高天原、月読命に夜の食国、タケハヤスサノオに海原の統治を命じた。　イサナギとイザナミのこどもスサノオのみことは亡き母イザナミのもとに帰りたいと言って泣きわめく。その暴行でアマテラスの神聖な祭儀を壊したとしてその地からの追放の刑に処される。追放地に向かう前にスサノオは事情を説明するため高天原を訪れる。アマテラスは高天原を奪うのではないかと恐れ、完全武装して、なぜ登ってくるのかと聞く。それに対して、私の心には邪心なく、また異心なしと答える。ここに日本古来からの清き心の大切さの源流を見る。　

　その後、スサノオは農耕を荒らす悪神として、根の国に追放されながら、出雲神話ではヤマタノオロチを退治する英雄となる。やがて、皮をはがれた白兎を助けた大国主命が、スサノオの娘と結婚して出雲国をつくる物語となる。そしてアマテラスに国を譲る。　

　古事記の中には、古代人、神々の行動原理が描かれている。非日常的な力を表すものとして、タマとカミがあり、カミは尊いもの、善いもの、勇ましいもののみでなく、悪しきもの、怪しいもの、奇妙なものを含んでいる。尋常を超えて能力を持つも、畏るべきものは、人、鳥獣、山川草木などすべてがカミである。非日常的な祝福や災厄を日常から追い払う、呪術によってタマを鎮め、それを祓う。タマ、カミを鎮めタタリ、ケガレをミソギでキヨメる。精霊のタタリとともにツミもミソギによって洗い流される。みそぎによって、自然現象も罪も洗い流されるキヨメの意味となる。これが日本古来の、古代人の思考の原型を作り、神道に受け継がれたと考えられる。

　紀元３世紀になると、純粋な呪術から祭儀への発展が見られる。　呪術師による災厄の除去と、福の招来の、吉凶世界から人間が神々の秩序に逆らい災厄が起こる、それが罪であるという意識、善悪が誕生し、精霊から神々に対する祈願や崇拝に変化してくる。神々に対する祈願から、やがて儀礼が、神々の信仰の象徴になる。　呪術から祭儀となり、後には、天皇は神道の最高祭祀者として、祭祀や儀式を執り行う役割を担い、神道の神職も天皇から派遣され、神社の運営や神事を行なっていくことになり、神道へと発展していく。　

　

　日本書紀には、仏教伝来以前の八百万の神の存在が記載されている。日本の仏教は、５５２年頃に百済の聖明王から仏具と経典一式が献上されたことで公式には伝来する。日本書紀には「西蕃の献れる仏の相貌端巌し。全ら未だ曾て有ず。礼ふべきや不や。」と問われ、蘇我大臣は日本だけが、仏教に反対することはないと言い、物部氏は、「天地社稷の百八十神を以って、春夏秋冬、祭拝りたまふことを事とす。方に今改めて蕃神を拝みたまはば、恐らくは国神の怒りを致したまはむ。」受け入れに反対した。そのころ蘇我氏が物部氏に勝って権力を得て、仏教を日本で公認した。

　この蘇我氏に擁立された聖徳太子の１７条の憲法で仏法僧の三宝を敬う政策で、氏族の仏教は次第に国家仏教、すなわち天皇の鎮護する宗教となってきた。１７条の憲法の中で、日本国の存在、政治の権威もまた、仏教的、普遍的な正義を強調している。こうして、日本古来の思想は仏教的思想に支えられ、全土に広がって行く。

徳川時代の儒教

 　徳川家康は、幕府を開いたとき、仏教を無力化し、キリスト教も弾圧した。そして国家統治の原理は儒教を取り入れ、戦国時代を終わらせる方法としての武力的権力の凍結を行い幕藩体制を固めていった。単なる軍事独裁政権ではない仁政主義すなわち儒教を取り入れ、修身斉家治国平天下の方針をすすめた。

　

　統治のイデオロギーとしての儒学が１４世紀の頃から戦国時代に取り入れられ、戦国大名の統治の哲学として広がってきた。　ヘーゲルは儒教国中国を「一人の専制君主が頂点に位し、ヒエラルキーの多くの階序を通じて、組織的構成をもった政府を指導している。そこでは宗教関係や家事に至るまでが国法によって定められている。個人は道徳的には無我にひとしい」と評していた。

　徳川幕府は戦乱の下克上を終わらせ、幕藩体制の天下泰平の国を作るため、この儒教を活用していった。徳川幕府は儒教の中の朱子学思想を正統とした。朱子学は、仏教の理論に対抗するために、宇宙と人間、人々の倫理までを組織化した。自然の法則と人の行動、宇宙の秩序と社会の秩序が連なり、人々が修身することによって国が治るとした思想であった。

　「心正しくして后身修り、身修りて后家斉ひ、家斉ひて后国治り、国治りて后天下平なり。天子より庶人に至るまで壱に是皆修身を以て本となす。その本乱れて末治るものはあらじ。」と大学巻頭に述べられ、林羅山は「天はおのずから上にあり、地はおのずから下にあり、已に上下位さだまるときは、上はたっとく、下はいやし、自然の理の序のあるところには此上下を見てしるべし、人の心も又かくのごとし、上下たがはず貴賤みだれざるときは人倫ただし、人倫正しければ国家おさまる、国家おさまる時は、王道成就す、これ礼のさかんなうもの也。」

　そして武士の支配の根拠として朱子学者雨森芳洲は「人に四等あり。曰く士農工商。士以上は心を労し、農以下は力を労す。心を労する者は上に在り。力を労するものは下に在り。こころを労するものは心広く志大にして慮遠し、農以下は力を労して自ら保つのみ。顚倒すれば則ち天下小にしては不平、大にしては乱る。」

　藤原惺窩は「人間と生まれ来てより後に人欲というものあり、人欲さかむになれば、明徳おとろへて、かたちは人にして、心はとりけだものに一になる。まづ明徳をあきらかにし、次にこころを誠にし、次にするほどの所作をつつしみて、こころのうちをみがき、其上に五常五倫を偽なくおこなへば、わが身ながら聖人となりて、天道と一体なり」聖人は天の道理、天地自然と合一している。人の道は聖人の境地を修得することとした。

　自然や、世間を見る世界像もまたこの儒教により組み立てられ、仁義礼智信孝悌の徳目は、江戸庶民の世間常識のもととなった。　各藩もこれにならって学問所で教学振興をはかった。そして寺子屋で読み書きが教えられ、それが庶民への儒教普及をうながした。そして出生とか家柄とか年齢が決定的な役割を持ち、何をするかでなく、何であるかが重視される社会であり、武士は武士らしく、町人は町人らしく振る舞うことが求められた。さらに３代将軍家光は家康を東照宮として、神として日光にまつり、日光を伊勢と同等の地位に置いた。

　しかし、朱子学で始まった江戸時代も、儒教の間で論争が起き、変化し、反儒教の思想も生まれてきた。１７５８年朱子学を神道と結びつけた闇斎学を信奉する竹内式部が追放された。彼らの主張は、尊王の思想とともに、倒幕思想を含んでいた。これに対して、幕府は体制の立て直しをはかり１７９０年「寛政異学の禁」で朱子学を幕府の生学とした。それとともに湯島の昌平坂を幕府の学問所として公認した。　儒教でも朱子学の他に、知行合一を主張し行動を重視する陽明学があった。その信奉者、大塩平八郎は大阪で１８３７年に乱をおこした。荻生徂徠は天道と人道を分けて人間の私的活動の領域に寛容な儒教、古学を提唱した。　さらに仁義礼譲孝悌忠信などはもろこしの聖人と呼ばれる人々がつくり、人間をしばりつけてしまったものであるとし、儒教をまっこうから否定する国学なども人々の間に広まってくる。

　１９世紀に入ると、ヨーロッパの大国が世界を支配し、全世界に市場と領土をめぐる争いが展開され始め、日本もその闘争に巻き込まれることになる。こうして徳川時代の儒教の世界は崩れ、様々な西欧文化が急激に日本にやってきた。

　明治政府を樹立した薩長の指導者達は、世界の列強と対等な一等国を目指して国を統一する必要に迫られた。江戸時代の東照宮や儒教を廃止し、王政を復古し日本は天皇が統治する国として東照宮の神を天皇の神にもどした。その根拠として日本書紀の天壌無給の神勅の記述を用いた。江戸時代この神話は中国の伝説上の皇帝と同じように、天照から神武天皇の父の５人の神様は事実ではない、神話であるとされていて、林羅山は神武天皇は古代の豪族の一人であると解釈していた。それに対して、伊藤博文らは　、天皇の神格化をはかり、大日本帝国は万世一系の天皇之を統治するとした。

　こうして明治時代に福沢諭吉が「陰陽の五行の惑溺を払わざれば窮理の道に入るべからず」と文明論之概略で述べたように、儒教文化圏を日本は脱出し、脱亜入欧をはかった。しかし庶民の間には無常観、輪廻転成、仁義忠孝の世界は残った。