Basho and Isabella Bird

The months and days the travelers of  eternity.

The years that come and go are also voyagers.

 In 1878 (Meiji 11), Isabella Bird, then 46 years old, arrived at the port of Yokohama, Japan, on May 20th, after completing her journey in Hawaii. She stayed in various towns in the Kanto region, including Asakusa in Tokyo. Following the embankment road and taking in the continuous villages of the Kanto Plain, she headed towards Nikko on June 10th and arrived there on June 13th, before eventually staying in Niigata.

"We set out early this morning in a light drizzle and climbed straight up a hill under a row of cedar trees that stretched for eight miles. The vegetation was lush, suggesting the hot and humid summer climate and the abundant rainfall of the mountainous region."

The Toshogu Shrine in Nikko is a mausoleum of Japanese architecture and gardens. Due to the anti-Buddhist policies of the Meiji period, the grand ceremonies and Buddhist fixtures had been removed. Although it had changed since the Tokugawa period, Bird marveled at the dragon head and peony lattice carvings of the Yomeimon gate, and the arabesque patterns, noting "Wealth and art have created a paradise with gold and color." She also saw the pagoda containing Ieyasu's remains, a bronze crane, and a vase of lotus flowers and wrote, "Outside, the grandeur of nature envelops the tomb of the great general in exquisite sorrow," capturing Japan as it was in the Edo period through the eyes of a foreigner

　

In the spring of 1689 (Genroku 2), on May 16th (old calendar March 27th), Matsuo Basho left Edo Fukagawa and headed towards Nikko. It was the beginning of his journey for "The Narrow Road to the Deep North," and he arrived in Nikko on May 19th. For the people of the Edo period, Nikko was a place where Kobo Daishi (Kukai) renamed the land from Futara Mountain to Nikko, a place abundant in benevolent water and wild lands, and a haven of tranquility for all classes. There was so much to admire that he could not put down his brush.

　　The passing of spring –

　　Birds cry laments

　　and the eyes of  fish fill with tears

　　

　　On sacred Mount Nikko

        New  leaves,  green leave

      Radiant in the light of the sun

　　For a while, I shall remain

　　Secluded by the waterfall

　　At the start of summer

During the rainy season, Basho crossed the Shirakawa barrier, passed through Fukushima, headed towards Sendai, and went further north from Matsushima to Hiraizumi.

　　Summer grasses –

　　All that remains,

　　Of warriors' dreams

　　All these years and rainy seasons,

        Was  it only you that was spared

　　Sacred hall of Gold.

　　Deep silence –

　　Permeating rokks,

        The shrill of cicadas

　　

While crossing the Mogami River on his way to Niigata, Basho waited for a boat in Oishida during the rainy season around the old calendar May 29th. The Mogami River, with its source in Yonezawa and upstream in Yamagata, was known as a difficult passage during the Edo period.

　　May's rains gathered fast,

　　Swiftly flows ,

　　The Mogami  river

　　　　

Basho climbed Mount Haguro, one of the Three Mountains of Dewa, which also includes Mount Gassan and Mount Yudono. The shrine on Haguro, part of the Tendai sect, is known as a training center for monks and is revered and feared as a sacred site.

　　In the coolness –

　　a faint crescent moon   hovers 

        over  Black Feather  Mountain

　　Peaks of cloud –

　　How many have crumbled,

        To the moon mountain

Afterward, Isabella Bird stayed in Niigata for over a week at the beginning of July to observe Christian missionary activities. It was the rainy season without a clear day, but she saw Niigata, a port town on the Japan Sea side with a population of 50,000 at the mouth of the Shinano River. Government offices and schools had been established, and an English school had 150 students. At the time, Niigata Prefecture had a population of 1.5 million, making it the most populous prefecture. It was a major production area for rice and other crops, canals were used for transportation, and she saw a newly developed and clean city area.

Matsuo Basho passed through Fukushima and Sendai and arrived in Niigata from Sakata in the old calendar July. He didn't show much interest in the city of Niigata, and his thoughts turned to the next leg of his journey, the 130 ri (about 520 km) to the Kaga province capital of Kanazawa, enjoying the natural scenery.

　　July moon –

　　Not the usual night,

　　Even on the sixth day

　　Above the rough seas,

　　Stretching herself out over Sado Island,

   　 The Milky Way

Isabella Bird's journey took her from Niigata to Yamagata, Yokote, Akita, and Aomori, before crossing to Hakodate in Hokkaido. That year was marked by an unusually long rainy season, and in the town of Hirakawa in Aomori Prefecture, she encountered flooding caused by more than a week of heavy rain that had swollen the local river. 

As she described, "Each wave, frothing with a yellow-brown foam, reared its crest, much like the mane of a chestnut horse." Logs and trees were swept away, and bridge abutments were eroded. Of the 19 bridges in the area, only two remained, and almost all the roads had been washed away. Afterward, she finally reached Kuroishi by alternately riding horses and human-powered carts. It was a beautiful town 22 and a half miles from Aomori. During her journey, Bird wore American mountain attire and Wellington boots, riding packhorses. In heavy rain, she used a mino (straw raincoat) and umbrella to avoid getting soaked.

Basho's "The Narrow Road to the Deep North" is a symbol of Japanese culture, a classic of haiku poetry, and one of the best-known literary works of the Edo period. Two hundred years later, British-born Isabella Bird arrived in Japan after her travels in Canada, America, Oceania, and Hawaii. She journeyed through parts of Japan unvisited by foreigners and published "Unbeaten Tracks in Japan." 

Unlike Basho, a haiku poet who traveled in a historical context, Bird wrote about Japan in the same season but with a different perspective and spatial view. In her work, she depicted regional children, women's customs, and traditions, as well as nature, elements that have changed little since the Edo period.

 Isabella Bird continued to travel to China, the Malay Peninsula, the Sinai Peninsula, Tibet, Persia, and Morocco. Her keen observational eye, free from preconceptions and informed by a broad cultural background, made her travelogues enduring classics read worldwide.

My body ,now  lose to fifty years of age ,has become an old tree that bears bitter peaches' a snail which ha lost its shell ,a bagworm separated from its bag; it drifts with the winds and clouds that know no destination .

平安仏教ともののあわれ

 秋きぬと目にはさやかに見えねども風のおとにぞおどろかれぬる

　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　藤原　敏行　　　　古今和歌集

「花に鳴くうぐいす、水に住むかわずの声をきけば、生きとし生けるもの、いづれか歌をよまざりける。力をもいれずして、天地を動かし、めに見えぬ鬼神をも、あはれと思わせ、男女のなかをも和らげ、猛きもののふの心をも、なぐさむるは歌なり」　

　古今和歌集は、紀　貫之らによって日本最初の勅撰和歌集として編纂された。　その紀貫之は「男もすなる日記というものを、女もしてみむとしてするなり。それの年の師走の二十日あまり一日の、戌のときに門出す。」で始まる「土佐日記」を書いた。今まで男が漢文で書いた記録書である日記を、女性が書いたことにした、日記文学である。　ある人が土佐から任期を終え、今日に帰ってくるという虚構の日記で、多くの言葉遊びと、多くの和歌が含まれている。その４０年後には「蜻蛉日記」が道綱の母によって書かれた。

　平安時代の文学は和歌や日記、歌物語、作り物語、私家集など多くの神話にも似た物語世界がしだいに貴族から多くの人々、庶民の間に広がっていった。その物語の底流には仏教の世界観が色濃く反映し、江戸文学に見られるような儒教の影響はなかった。　

　竹取物語は、現在原本は確認されていない散文の物語で、現代のSFと同じ、思考による空想の物語が平安の世界で展開する。かぐや姫は平安時代の人の世の世界に現れた月の都からの使者で、最後は地球を離れ故郷の月にかえる、時代を超えた、ストーリーであった。

「うつほ物語」、継子いじめの「落窪物語」、在原業平の「伊勢物語」などの多くの小説が書かれた。それらの小説の内容は、源氏物語と同様に、仏教的無常観や因果応報といった仏教的世界観が見られる。伊勢物語の中に「散ればこそ、いとど桜は愛でたけれ、うき世になにか久しかるべき」は無常観の中の美、はかなく散りゆく桜に美を見いだしている。

　今昔物語は、漢字とかなの混じった文字で記載された物語で、天竺（インド）、震旦（中国）、本朝（日本）の仏教の物語と世俗の物語に分かれる。「今は昔」で始まり、「となむ語り伝えたるとや」で終わる。そしてその結語は面白し、微妙なり、奇異なり、と評価し結ばれる現代日本人と変わらない感情が現れている。内容は、物語の主人公の行いが、何をもたらすかといった仏教的因果の物語、極楽往生疑いなしで終わるものが多く、芥川龍之介の小説「鼻」のように僧侶の生活やお寺が舞台の物語と、平安時代の庶民の物語で、源氏物語の天皇とその間近の上流貴族の様や、それに、まつわる女房の物語とは全く違った、様々な階層の人々の貧困や、欲望や蓄財の仕方、その悪行や盗人、羅生門の世界が展開する。

　当時の人々の物の見方の根底にある仏教の世界は、地獄と極楽で、それはインドの仏教経典の「起世経」や「正法念処経」をモデルにしたものと、中国の「馬頭羅刹仏名経」の経典から描いた地獄絵が生まれ、仏教の経典とともに日本にもたらされた。日本では、平安初期の「日本霊異記」の因果応報物語の中に、悪しき行いをしたものが地獄に落ちて行く話が描かれている。枕草子の中に、年末の仏名会の地獄絵を女房たちが、気味わるがって眺めている時、清少納言はそれを観るのを怖がり、部屋に閉じこもった、と書かれている。

　地獄の思想は初に貴族たちが、仏教の経典からイメージをつかみ、言葉、絵や彫刻によってそれを表現し、一般の人々に広がっていった。　平安時代の人々にとって地獄とは、六道のうちの地獄、餓鬼、畜生の死後の世界をモチーフにした絵に描かれた世界であった。　仏教の六道輪廻の思想とは、死後に六道すなわち、地獄道、餓鬼道、畜生道、阿修羅道、人間道、天道、がありその世界を人間は転生して行く。悪行を重ねると地獄に行き、善行をすれば天道の幸福な世界、極楽に死後行ける。そして極楽の世界をこの世に生み出すため、仏堂を建て、その中に仏像をおさめ極楽浄土の空間をつくった。

　源氏物語には、前の世のむくいといった、輪廻による因果応報の世界観が書かれている。また、葵の上に乗り移った生霊をよりまし（憑坐）役の体に写す、霊魂移動の場面もある。　当時、ものの霊が登場し、鬼が現れ、狐が人をばかすと信じられ、ものの霊や怪異に対してに対抗する陰陽師や法師も現れる。

　朝廷でも、天災地変や物怪や雨乞いに、仏典読経、神社奉幣とともに五行思想にもとにした五色の龍を祀る行事が行われ、陰陽に詳しい陰陽師が祈祷を行った。これが、貴族社会に定着し、公家文化の一部になっていった。仏教と神道と、中国の陰陽五行思想が日本化した陰陽道さらには祟りを恐れる御霊信仰があった。これらを神仏の力を借り、あるいは加持祈祷により物の怪を鎮める儀式が当時の貴族社会では普通のことで、地獄極楽の仏教思想と物の怪、悪霊の思想両者が合体した仏事がとり行われていた。

　平安時代、様々な時代背景で、様々な人々によって書かれ、記録された書物が書かれ、平安文化をつくりだした。それをどのように評価するかは、時代により、思想により異なってくる。　源氏物語の内容について、伊勢物語と同様に、江戸時代儒学者は、風俗を乱す元であると、批判していた。また国学者の春満も中世以来、風俗が乱れたのは、和歌の恋歌のためであると考え、それらは、退廃にも近い平安時代の皇室や公家社会の奢侈な生活の反映と解釈していた。林羅山は古今和歌集の序文を高く評価したもののその他の草子などはほとんど評価しなかった。

　 それに対して本居宣長は、源氏物語について「歌のいでくる本は物のあわれ也。その物のあわれをしるには、この物語を見るにまさる事なし。この物語は、紫式部がしる所の物のあわれよりいできて、今見るひとの物のあわれは、この物語よりいでくる也。されば、この物語は物のあわれをかきあつめて、よむ人にもののあわれをしらしむるより外の義なく、よむ人ももののあわれをしるより外の意なかるべし。是歌道の本意也。」

　すべて外部の物事にふれて感動するのがもののあわれであるとし、「うれしきにも、おもしろきにも、たのしきにも、おかしきにも、すべてあわれとおもわるるは、みなあわれ也」また、儒教や仏教の善悪の基準は、書の評価とは別物で、人の自然な感情の流れを描いた物語をよむことで、世間のことがよくわかる。と考えた。

　平安時代、貴族社会から仏教は取り入れられ、神社を排除することなく日本中に広まり、国、家、個人だれもが極楽浄土を希求し、病気や争い、悪霊、自然の猛威に対して、神に頼み、仏に祈り、加持祈祷が行なわれていた。

これらの宗教的世界で創られた平安文学に見られる人の心の表現、源氏物語の「もののあわれ」、清少納言の枕草子の「いとおかし」、あるいは今昔物語の「おもしろし」、「微妙なり」といった感性は今もあまり変わらない。

　　　見渡せば花も紅葉もなかりけり浦の苫屋の秋の夕暮れ　　　　　

　　　　　　　　　　　　　　

　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　新古今和歌集　　　藤原定家

"Tales of Rain and Moonlight”, Ugetsu Monogatari

 

To understand the literary world of the Edo period, one must overcome significant historical gaps in how people perceived the world, along with the language barrier. There are two major layers of transformation: the worldview of post-war democracy, with the establishment of democracy and human rights after Japan's defeat in World War II, and the rejection of the feudal family system and emperor-centered nationalism. 

The second layer involves the Meiji Restoration, which rejected Confucianism and altered the treatment of Buddhism, revealing the spiritual world of the Edo period beneath. This world was inhabited by the Buddhist concept of reincarnation and the Confucian values of benevolence, righteousness, loyalty, and filial piety, coexisting with a world of supernatural creatures.

Overcoming the barriers of language and cultural gaps reveals a fresh literary world, whose works would later influence many writers.

Rohan compiled the Water Margin, thereby bringing forth the mute child of three generations,

Shikibu wrote the original words, but those who once fell into evil ways,

Indeed, it's merely a place pressed to perform their duties.

 "Tales of Rain and Moonlight", which reflects the mood and themes of the stories – they are often melancholy, dealing with the mysterious and the ethereal, much like the feeling one might get on a rainy, moonlit night."The Ugetsu Monogatari, commencing with the introduction, 'In March of the fifth year of Meiwa, when the rain has cleared, under the hazy moonlight of the late spring night, this book was compiled by the window and bestowed upon Azusa. It is titled 'Tales of Moonlight and Rain,' was published in 1776 (the fifth year of An'ei) when Ueda Akinari was 43 years old.

Ugetsu Monogatari is a collection of bizarre short stories that include 'Shiramine,' 'The Chrysanthemum Vow,' 'The Reed-Choked House,' 'The Carp of My Dreams,' 'The Buddha, the Law, and the Priest,' 'The Kettle of Kibi,' 'Lust of the White Serpent,' 'The Blue Hood,' and 'A Discourse on Poverty and Wealth.' These are narratives that project the intricate emotions and thoughts harbored within individuals onto their extraordinary content.

'"Shiramine", the first tale in Ueda Akinari's "Ugetsu Monogatari", tells the story of Saigyō, a monk who encounters the vengeful spirit of dethroned Emperor Sutoku while traveling. The spirit, filled with resentment over his past, asks Saigyō for a consoling poem. Despite Saigyō's poignant verse about the transient nature of life, the spirit remains unconsoled, underscoring the power of lingering resentment and the potential of art to express deep emotions.

The Chrysanthemum Vow' tells of a young man named Samon, who lives with his mother, nursing a passing samurai one day and forming a brotherly bond with him. The recovered samurai turns out to be a military scholar from Izumo, named Soemon, who promises to return on September 9th and goes back to his hometown, where he becomes imprisoned and unable to fulfill his vow. The story follows him taking his life to keep his promise, even if it means becoming a ghost, later seen as an Edo-era version of the fidelity of Melos' friend.

In 'The Reed-Choked House,' the spirit of Miyagi, who had kept faith with her husband's promise and kept waiting, was already dead, and the apparition living in their now ruined home was just a phantom of Miyagi.

Soemon's spirit traveling on the wind, the spectral form of Miyagi who dies of desperation while waiting seven years for her husband Katsushiro in 'The Reed-Choked House,' and the vengeful spirit of the Cloistered Emperor Sutoku; all these stories depict intangible spirits realizing the emotions of the deceased, after bodies filled with hope, despair, resentment, or desire have disappeared

"This Ugetsu Monogatari is a collection of short stories that had a significant influence on later Japanese novelists, and it became a representative work of the Edo period's Yomihon.

Ueda Akinari was born in 1734 (the 19th year of the Kyoho era), and at the age of four, he was adopted by the Ueda family, a paper and oil merchant in Dojima, Osaka. He studied at a private school called Kaitokudo and, at the age of 33, authored 'Shodou Akiramimi Seken Saru(shodo hearing ear world monkey)’ 

"Although he studied national studies, at the age of 38, he lost his home in a fire. Seizing this as an opportunity, he studied medicine from Confucian doctors and started practicing medicine in Osaka at the age of 42. Then, at the age of 43, he released the Ugetsu Monogatari to the world.

The background to the birth of this new novel, a story independent from the medieval Buddhist or early modern Confucian morals of rewarding good and punishing evil, was the cultural changes of the Edo period.

The Obaku Sect, a branch of Zen Buddhism, persecuted under the Qing dynasty at the end of the Ming dynasty, migrated to Japan in the 17th century. Particularly during the era of Tokugawa Tsunayoshi, Yoshiyasu Yanagisawa generously treated them, built temples all over the place, and made them Zen temples. During this time, Ogio Sorai, the policy brain of the time, welcomed Kaneyama Okajima, learned Chinese, and established classical literature studies. This separated literature and art from politics, and furthermore, Kaneyama Okajima translated a large amount of Chinese vernacular literature, bringing Chinese vernacular literature to Japan. The Obaku sect of Zen Buddhism was indeed the culture of the Ming Dynasty itself and had a significant impact on Buddhism in the Edo period."

This sencha was a symbol of Ming culture. In Baisao's sencha salon, literati from Kyoto gathered to create a 'China School', a place to study Chinese painting, literature, and the lifestyle of figures like Tao Yuanming. Yosa Buson, Ike no Taiga, and Ueda Akinari were influenced by this Chinese culture and created the literature of Kyoto and the upper regions during the Edo period. Later, the center of culture moved to Edo, marking the final period when Kyoto culture still retained its brilliance.

"When Akinari was 53 years old, as a scholar of Kokugaku (national studies), he criticized Motoori Norinaga, a nativist scholar and advocate of restorationism. Norinaga had claimed that Japan, the birthplace of the Sun Goddess Amaterasu, was a country illuminating all nations, and that there was no superior country in the world. In response, Akinari contested this by saying, 'If you look at a world map, no one would agree that Japan is at the center of the world,' which sparked a dispute.”

"Even if you're hailed as the Hyobee of Kojiki studies, it doesn't mean you have the last word."

In response to Norinaga's poem:

"When asked of the soul of Yamato in Shikishima, it shines like cherry blossoms under the morning sun."

Akinari humorously retorted:

"What's all this 'Yamato spirit' fuss in Shikishima? Yet again, more prattle about cherry blossoms."

Kokugaku, or National Studies, originated from Keichu, who innovated the interpretation of waka (classical Japanese poetry), rejecting the medieval oral traditions and advocating for waka as an expression of the heart. Simultaneously, Norinaga Motoori argued for the concept of Yamato-damashii, or the Japanese spirit, unaffected by Buddhism or Chinese thought, and sought to elucidate the pre-existing Japanese way. It was Kamo no Mabuchi who first merged these two paths of waka studies and ancient ways.

Ueda Akinari, a student of Kamo no Mabuchi, leaned heavily towards an artistic and literati-style activity, and as such, found himself in opposition to the nationalist, Japan-centric Norinaga Motoori.

At the age of 55, Aki Naru left the medical profession and moved to Kyoto, Nara, and Osaka, while writing essays like "Sanmuiki" and travelogues on waka poetry, and a collection of poetic essays called "Tsurabumi" (Wisteria Notebook). Around the age of 60, Nambo Ota worked as a government official in Osaka and met with Ueda Aki Naru, depicting their harmonious relationship in “Tandaishousinnroku" (Records of Gallantry and Cowardice).

In his later years, Aki Naru left behind a collection of short stories titled "Shun'u Monogatari" (Spring Rain Stories). 

Within these tales, he wove allegorical stories that personified human emotions, such as "Blood Armor," "The Bonds of Succession," "The God with a Single Eye," and "The Blossoming Face of Death.

" His view of humanity was that there are no purely evil or virtuous individuals; all people are capable of mistakes and changeable. The final story shares a theme with “The Blue Hood," where a ruffian undergoes a transformation of heart and becomes a Buddhist monk, illustrating the idea that releasing one's heart leads to becoming a demon, and restraining it brings enlightenment.

ラスト シーン 三島由紀夫の豊饒の海

　人は言葉によって、進化し、生存してきた。そして言葉によって感情を動かされる。人間は、意味のある言葉の連なりだけでなく、意味のない、意味不明の言葉の連なりにも意味を見つけて、理解しようとする。もし宇宙人なりAIが言葉を連ね、物語を創作したとき、その創作者の意図を読者である人間はどのように想像するのか。意味のない世界には生きられない人間にとって高度な言語を操るAIとの付き合いはなかなかむつかしい。　

 「いいえ、本多さん、私は俗世で受けた恩愛は何一つ忘れはしません。しかし松枝清顕さんといふ方は、お名をきいたこともありません。そんなお方は、もともとあらしやらなかったと違ひますか？何やら本多さんさんが、あるやうに思うてあらしやつて、実ははじめから、どこにもをられなんだ、といふことではありませんか？」

門跡の目ははじめてやや強く本多を見据えた。

「それも心々ですさかい」

「これと云って奇巧のない、閑雅な、明るくひらいた御庭である。数珠を操るやうな蝉の声がここを領している。そのほかには何一つ音とてなく、寂寞を極めている。この庭には何もない。記憶もなければ何もないところへ、自分は来てしまったと本多は思った。

庭は夏の日ざかりの日を浴びてしんとしている。」

　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　豊饒の海　第四巻　天人五衰

もう一つの構想

　本多はすでに老境。その身辺に、いろいろ一、二、三巻の主人公らしき人物出没せるも、それらはすでに使命を終りたるものにて、贋物也。四巻を通じ、主人公を探索すれども見つからず。つひに七十八歳で死せんとすとき、十八歳の少年現はれ、突然、天使の如く、永遠の青春に輝けり。（今までの主人公が解脱にいたって、消失し、輪廻をのがれしとは考へられず。第三巻女主人公は悲惨なる死を遂げし也）

この少年のしるしを見て、本多はいたくよろこび、自己の解脱の契機をつかむ。

思へば、この少年、この第一巻よりの少年は阿頼耶識の権化、アラヤ識そのもの、本多の種子たるアラヤ識なりし也。

本多死なんとして解脱に入る時、光明の空へ船出せんとする少年の姿、窓ごしに見ゆ。

「豊饒の海は私は小説家になって以来考えつづけていた世界解釈の小説を書きたかったのである。幸いにして私は日本人であり、幸いにして輪廻の思想は身近にあった。」

「その夢と転生の主題、そのかすかな疲れた風情のある文体、その衰えた佳人のような姿に魅せられて、私は、これを基にして、どうしても厖大な現代の「浜松中納言物語」を書いてみたい、という嗜欲にかられるにいたったのである。」

こうして、豊饒の海は製作され、６０年にわたる本多の清顕の輪廻転生の物語は終末を迎える。この結末の二つの構想、悟りに至るか、あるいは虚無のままで終わらせるかが構想された。邯鄲の夢の物語あるいは江戸時代の上田秋成の雨月物語、あるいはエッシャーの絵のように、見方によって世界は反転する。多くの物語の終焉の場面をどのようにするのかを決定する、作者の判断は、どこから生まれるのか。物語自体が虚構ならどのようにでも終焉は描かれるのか。その結論を生み出す原動力はどこからどのように生まれるのか。

　三島由紀夫は、１７才の作「花ざかりの森」からすでに、古典作品や、古典の世界を現代小説にリメイクした作品を書いている。その後も日本文学小史の中で、文化とは、感じ方、生き方、審美眼など全てを無意識のうちに支配し、危機の発見に及んで、強く成員の行動を規制し、その行動を様式化するところのものである。その考えから、古事記からはじまる日本文学史をその時代の文化意志として書き始めた。

　紀貫之の創り出した古今和歌集の中には、「花に鳴くうぐいすや、水に住む蛙などの自然の擬人化が認められる。そして、古代の無秩序な荒ぶる魂は、新しい秩序の世界では排除され、古典主義的なみやびの世界を打ち立てた。和歌によって神秘的感動を詩にし、祭政一致の文化の形式を生み出し、宮廷の勅撰集は、政治支配と結びつく。」　

　９世紀の平安時代、「凌雲集」「文華秀麗集」「経国集」の勅撰の３つの詩集ができた。この漢字による文化を否定した日本語の和歌集、古今集は紀貫之らによって編集され、９０５年初の天皇勅撰の和歌集となる。「古今和歌集で、日本語は完成したと言える。」　「この勅撰和歌集を支える最高の文化集団があり、共通の文化意志を持ち、共通の生活の洗練をたのしみ、それらの集積の上に、千百十一首を成立せしめたのだった。或る疑いようのない「様式」というものが、ここに生じたとてふしぎはない。」と三島由紀夫は書いている。

「藤原定家が十九歳の時に、「紅旗征伐非吾事」、つまり紅い旗をかざして敵を討つような勇猛果敢な行為は自分のやるこっちゃないんだと、自分は歌道に専念して、繊細優美なる芸術に一生を捧げるんだという決心をした、それを日記の「明月記」に書いているんでありますが・・・　　　」新古今和歌集の選者藤原定家を小説化したいと語っていた三島由紀夫は、藤原定家とは異なる道を選んだ、結局、日本文学小史で新古今和歌集や藤原定家についての小説を書くことはなかった。

　国学は江戸時代の契沖の研究から始まる。契沖は万葉集や古事記などのかなを研究し、歴史的かな遣いを実証的に研究し、さらには、秘伝の歌の研究から、歌の精神の中に、日本古来の考えを見つけようとした。その業績の後を継いだ本居宣長は、この契沖を高く評価し、古事記の翻訳を通して、仏教や儒教の外来イデオロギーではない日本古来の考え、国学を完成した。この国学者たちの努力は、幕末になって倒幕の政治と結びついて、天皇制を復活させる復古イデオロギーとなった。国学者の中では芸術に重きを置く文人主義の歌学派と日本主義を主張する皇国イデオロギー派に分かれた。しかし両者の違いはほんの僅かしかなかった。昭和の時代に三島由紀夫は皇国主義の道を選んだ。

　AIのない時代の１９６４年（昭和３９年）三島由紀夫は「美しい星」というSFを書いた。このとき、「人間の形をした宇宙人の物語ではなく、観念の上で、自分の存在が宇宙人であると確信する人たち、その人間からなら「確かに」見える円盤を描く物語なのである。」と語っている。当時から見られる、観念の問題、唯心論の考えは豊饒の海の、第三巻、暁の寺で、その解説をし、豊饒の海はそのままの結末を迎える。

　

Buddhist Issa

   

  

The sacred touch of Gion's hallowed land,

Melodies of temple bells, life's command.

Sala blossoms, hues aflame,

Expose the fleeting glory, a hollow game.

The Tale of the Heike, a representative lyrical poem in Japan,was recited by a biwa player. Japanese literature has produced numerous works influenced by Buddhist thought since the Heian period. 

Around the same time, Saigyo expressed the Buddhist concept of impermanence in tanka poetry, which later evolved into Matsuo Basho's haiku during the Edo  period, 

earning global acclaim.

Sicken on a journey,

My dreams go wandering round

Withered field.

Basho aimed for great heights in his haiku, drawing inspiration from Zen Buddhism, particularly the Rinzai Zen school.   He Aimed spiritual height.His poems were translated into english and other languages, spreading worldwide.

Along this road,

Goes no one,

This autumn eve.

People speak words, write sentences, convey things, and through language, construct, organize, and create a meaningful world within time and space. Emotions are expressed through songs, paintings, and poetry. From poetry, tanka emerged by reducing the number of words, and further compressing the language to its extreme, haiku was born. When reducing it from 31 syllables to 17 syllables, the characters and spaces resonate like ringing a bell, creating a world of enlightenment where parts harmonize with the whole. The characters are compressed, transcending logic and reaching the deep recesses of the mind, becoming a Zen koan. Compared to explanatory waka, when the characters of haiku are further compressed, they undergo a radical transformation at the singularity point.

The old pond,

 A frog  leaps in,

Splash of the water.

Louis Kahn stated, "Space is that which envelops oneself, extending in all directions. Architecture is what gives it definition." Furthermore, Sen no Rikyu compressed this space, transforming it into a sacred and Zen-like world through the Japanese tea ceremony.

Price believed that haiku is the essence of all Eastern cultures. Haiku should be understood from the perspective of Zen. It is an inexpressible character that cannot be described in words, seen as embodying Zen. Just as the tea room compresses space to its minimum, haiku compresses language to its minimum, becoming Zen. This had an influence on American counterculture, including writers like Salinger.

How many  columns of clouds,

had risen and crumbled

Over the mountain of moon.

In the great silence,

permeating rocks

cicadas chorus.

 

                                                        Basshou 

In silence deep,  

Beneath   the lake it lies

 The  peaks of clouds.

                                                        Issa

 

Kobayashi Issa was born in 1763 in Shinshu. At the age of 15, he went to work in Edo (now Tokyo) and became the third-generation successor of the Katsushika school of painting in his twenties. At the age of 27, he left Edo and embarked on a journey to the Tohoku region. At the age of 30, after six years of traveling through Shikoku, Kyushu, and other western regions, he released the "Kansei Sangen Kikou" (A Travel Account of the Kansei Era) to the world.

A frog, softly asleep, 

cradled by the hand 

On the verdant plum tree.

O snail, ascend with gentle pace,

Your journey's peak 

Mount Fuji's grace.

Issa

Animals such as frogs and snails, as well as insects and plants, take on human-like qualities, sensing and perceiving the universe. The haiku that Seymour (Salinger) loved and chanted was 

Calm and serene

Looking at the far mountains

A frog.

A windy fall night

Through  the rickety window

The sound  of whistling.

Matsuo Basho was influenced by Zen philosophy, particularly Rinzai Zen, while Kobayashi Issa believed in the teachings of Shinran. Additionally, while Basho came from a samurai background, Issa was born into a peasant family. Issa saw Buddha nature in all people, not just frogs and insects, and he gave voices and songs to all living creatures, much like the chirping of chicks.

During the period from Houreki to Tenmei, the culture of Edo flourished, and there were many haikai poets. A cultural world that transcended the samurai, peasant, and merchant classes was created. In 1806 (Bunka 3), when Issa was 45 years old, the ban on heterodox learning in the Kansei era was issued. Zhu Xi's Confucianism was established as orthodox, while teachings of Yangming and ancient literature were considered heretical and banned from education by the shogunate. 

Peasants were forced to return to the land from the cities. As a result of the influence of Zhu Xi's teachings, those who didn't have fixed occupations, excluding the samurai, peasants, artisans, and merchants, found themselves in a narrow world.

In 1814 (Bunka 11), at the age of 52, Issa married Kiku. They had three sons and one daughter, but they died at a young age.

Give me the moon,

Insisting

The child pouts.

From the Bunka era onward, Issa settled in Kashiwabara, Shinshu, away from Edo. In 1818 (Bunsei 2), he compiled "Ora ga Haru" (My Spring). This was published posthumously.

 A happy new year

Well maybe just a little

Just another day.

Crawling, laughing, 

 Two from one—

Since this morning.

Deepening his faith in Amida Buddha, surrendering himself before Amida regardless of whether it be hell or paradise, it all depends on your will. Only requesting your benevolence.

Surrendering all, 

at the twilight of the year,

In your hands, the course of fate.

Issa's "My Spring" was not written from the perspective of an awakened individual, but from the viewpoint of an ordinary person, as a believer in Shinran's teaching of Other Power.

 He lived a married life, believing in the teachings, and resided in Kashiwabara, Shinshu. Issa, who was once a wild and ordinary man in his youth, married at the age of 52 and experienced the loss of his wife and children before returning to a solitary life at the age of 61.

Spring returns

Stop one folly,

 Another folly returns.

After remarrying, in 1827 (Bunsei 10) at the age of 65, his house in Kashiwabara was destroyed in a major fire. He passed away in that storage house.

On charred land

Embers glow,

As fleas dance.

Nara Buddhism and Manyoushuu

In Nara's ancient realm, blossoms bright,

Their fragrance wafts like a gentle flight,

The capital's charm, oh, how it gleams,

Now, in full bloom                                                                                                 

 Ancient Japan was a world of sound, an oral communication society. Chinese characters were introduced from the continent, leading to the birth of Man'yōgana, a script used for phonetic reading, essentially characters to be heard. Around the same time, Buddhism was introduced to Japan as a philosophical language expressing worldviews and perspectives on life and death.

Ancient Buddhism questioned how the world is perceived and how consciousness can be controlled. Humans possess a level of consciousness not found in insects or animals, and those with this consciousness have recognized Brahman (the universe) and Atman (the self), as described in Hinduism.

Brahman refers to the ultimate principle or reality that forms the entire universe and includes all living and non-living entities. On the other hand, Atman represents the innermost self or true self in human consciousness. "Brahman Atman Aikya" is a central concept in the Advaita Vedanta school of Hinduism, expressing the thought that Brahman (the ultimate reality of the universe) and Atman (the individual self) are essentially one. 

This view of the universe shows that the principle of the universe and the principle of the individual coincide, conveying the idea that "all is one, and that one is all", and that the macrocosm and the microcosm align.

In ancient Brahmanism and early Buddhism in India, time is considered as Samsara, or cyclic existence. Humans, influenced by the deeds (Karma) of their past lives, continue to wander in this cyclic world. Recognition and enlightenment of the self (Atman) allows for liberation from this Karma and entry into the world of Nirvana. Liberation from the world of time is nothing other than eternity

In Christianity, it is said, "In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God." God is an eternal being who creates time itself, and history is crafted according to God's plan. "Human beings are the unifiers of time and eternity." Humans dream of creating a utopia in the future and strive to make it a reality.

In ancient China, the cosmic order, or "Tian Dao," was seen as perpetually cycling with a certain order. When the order of Heaven is inherent in society, it becomes an ideal society, and when it is inherent in a person, they become a sage.

Ancient Buddhism and Hinduism acknowledge the existence of individual souls (Atman), but Buddhism teaches the concept of "Anatman," or "no-self." Buddha renounced his worldly life and undertook ascetic practices, aiming to attain the immortal Atman. At one point, he realized Anatman (no-self) and became an enlightened one, a Buddha. The self is understood as a product of a series of momentary sensations, emotions, thoughts, etc., all interacting and influencing each other. All these are seen as illusions, with beauty transforming into ugliness, love into hate, pleasure into pain, constantly changing. In other words, in Buddhism, what we perceive as ourselves or our ego is merely a series of changing states. Understanding this impermanence leads to liberation.

A Buddha is one who has realized the illusion of the self (Atman), experienced the no-self (Anatman), and entered Nirvana. The path to overcoming ignorance, the cause of suffering, is The eightfold Path. The Eightfold Path is indicative of this way to liberation.

 The Eightfold Path consists of right view, right thought, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration. It is the path that Avalokiteśvara Bodhisattva used this knowledge to be liberated from suffering and to achieve enlightenment.

Subsequently, Buddha's enlightenment continued to live in the memories of those who heard his words. When those words were recorded, interpretations led to the emergence of sects. This gave rise to Theravada and Mahayana Buddhism, and texts such as the Lotus Sutra, the Avatamsaka Sutra, the Heart Sutra, and the Vimalakirti Sutra.

Buddhism, which arrived in Japan in the 6th century, received the support of the government and became the state religion from the latter half of the 7th century. In the 8th century, during the Tenpyo era, European, Indian, and Chinese cultures flowed into the capital Heijo-kyo via the Silk Road. Many items preserved in the Shosoin Treasure Repository were brought to Japan. Buddhism, centered around the Avatamsaka Sutra, became the Buddhism of the emperor and the royal family, and thus the state religion. Prayers and sutra readings were performed, grand Buddhist architectures were built, various colored Buddhist tools were displayed, and magnificent Buddha statues were erected.

In the latter half of the Nara period, Kukai, also known as Kobo Daishi, was recognized by the ruling government and promoted Buddhism. He opened a training ground for esoteric Buddhism on Mount Koya and eventually designated Toji in Kyoto as the fundamental dojo, renaming it Kyoogokokuji. Every New Year, rites were performed at the imperial palace to pray for peace in the world and the emperor's well-being.

Kukai's Buddhism is described as follows in his work "The Ten Stages of Mind of the Secret Mandala": As stages of consciousness, from the first stage of the ignorant ordinary person, the sense of morality sprouts in the second stage. In the third stage, a religious mind like that of a child is born, and a sense of peace arises. After passing through fearlessness, in the fourth stage, there are those who hear the teachings of the Buddha and awaken. The fifth stage is those who awaken on their own without relying on the teachings of the Buddha. In the sixth stage, a heart of altruism is born. In the seventh and eighth stages, one reaches the world of the Lotus Sutra, where everything in Mahayana Buddhism is pure, non-opposing, and as it is. The ninth stage is reaching the highest level of exoteric teachings, the Huayan School. The tenth stage is the world of esoteric Buddhism, reaching the secret mandala, enlightenment within oneself. This state of being one with the Bodhisattva mind is considered the secret majestic mind.

To reach this ideal state, one should live a life approaching and imitating Buddha. Through this, one unifies oneself with the Dainichi Nyorai (Mahavairocana Buddha). In the Heart Sutra, the famous mantra, "Go, go, go beyond, go thoroughly beyond, and establish yourself in enlightenment," is spoken.

In the concept of "Sokushin-Jobutsu," achieving Buddhahood in this very body is done through rituals and prayers. By burning Goma fire, chanting mantras, bowing towards the vividly colored Mandala of the main deity, making offerings, and concentrating on these actions, these teachings became popular as they were easy to understand for the Japanese emperors, nobles, and common people. On the flip side, this led to Buddhism becoming a worldly religion that prioritized rituals and prayers, drifting away from its original status as a global religion.

As the Nara period ended and the Heian period began, Buddhism evolved into a form more suited to the nobility, focusing on worldly prayers for healing from illnesses and dreams of a resplendent Pure Land in the afterlife, imbued with the faith of Jodo (Pure Land Buddhism). The impermanence and world-weariness in Buddhism became expressions of worldly disappointment due to heartbreak stories and loss of power, leading to an intertwining of the Heian nobility's aesthetic sensibilities and the Buddhist worldview. This saw a beauty in transience and fleeting things, thus creating an undercurrent of 'hakanaki' (transience) and 'mono no aware' (the pathos of things) in literary works.

"For this world now, if it is joyous, in the next world, even if I become a bug or a bird, I wouldn't mind." - Otomo no Tabito, Man’yōshū

In the era of the Man'yōshū poets, if the present world was joyous, they did not mind even if they became a bug or a bird in the next life. It was a time when the Buddhist concepts of reincarnation and the transience of this world were absent, and the enjoyment of the present world was the mainstream.

はじめに言葉ありき 天平時代と仏教

 あおによし　奈良の都は　咲く花の　薫ふがごとく　今盛りなり　

（青丹吉寧　　楽乃京師者　咲花乃　　薫如　　　　　今盛有）

　　　　　　　　　　太宰府の次官　　小野老　　　　　　万葉集　巻三　　３２８番歌

　古代日本は音の世界、オーラル　コミュニケーション世界であった。大陸から漢字が入ってきて、音読用の文字として聞くための文字、万葉仮名が生まれた。同じ頃に、仏教は世界観や死生観をあらわす思想の言葉として日本に伝来した。

　古代仏教は世界をどのようにとらえ、いかに意識をコントロールするかを問題にした。人には、虫や動物にはない意識が生まれ、意識を持った人間はヒンズー教でいうブラーフマン（宇宙）とアートマン（自己）を認識した。

　ブラフマンは全ての宇宙を形成し、生命を持つ全ての生物と無生物を含む究極の原理または現実を指す。一方、アートマンは人間の意識の最も奥にある自己、真我をしめす。「梵我一如」（Brahman Atman Aikya）は、ヒンズー教のアドヴァイタ・ヴェーダンタ学派の中心的な概念で、ブラフマン（宇宙の究極的な実相）とアートマン（個々の自己）は本質的に一つであるという思想を表している。宇宙原理と個人原理は一致する「全ては一つであり、その一つは全てであるマクロコスモスとミクロコスモスは一致するという宇宙観を示している。

　古代インドのバラモン教や原始仏教では、時間は輪廻（サムサーラ）で考えられる。人間は前世の業（カルマ）を因として、輪廻の世界をさまよい続ける。この因縁の世界は自我（アートマン）を認識し、悟ることによって、このカルマから解脱し涅槃（ニルバーナ）の世界へ到達できる。時間の世界からの離脱が永遠に他ならないとした。

　キリスト教では、「はじめに言葉ありき、言葉は神と共にあり、言葉は神であった。」

神は時間そのものを創造する、超時間の永遠的存在で、歴史は神の計画で造られる。「人間は時間と永遠との統一者である。」そして、人間は未来にユートピアをつくることを夢見、実現に努力する。

　古代中国では、宇宙秩序、天道は一定の秩序をもって永遠に循環する。天の秩序が社会に内在するとき理想社会となり、人に内在するとき聖人になる。

　古代仏教、ヒンズー教は個々の魂（アートマン）の存在を認めるが、仏教は「無我」の概念を教え、これを無自我、またはアナートマンという。釈迦は出家し苦行し、不死のアートマンを体得しようとした。ある時アナートマン（無我）を悟り覚者（ブッダ）となった。自我は一連の瞬間的な感覚、感情、思考など、互いに関連し影響し合う過程の産物と捉えられ、これらは全て虚構で、美は醜悪に変わるし、愛は憎に、快は苦に、常に変化し続けている。つまり、仏教では、我々が自分、自我と感じているものは実際には一連の変化する状態にすぎない。この無常を知ることが解脱である。

　仏陀とは、我（アートマン）の虚妄を悟り、無我（アナートマン）の体験を得て涅槃（ニルバーナ）に入った覚醒者である。　そして、苦しみの原因である無知を克服するための道、つまり「八正道」をしめす。八正道とは生見、正思、正語、正業、正命、正精進、正念、正定、で観自在菩薩がこの知識を使って苦しみから解放され、悟りを得る道である。

　その後、ブッダの悟りはその言葉を聞いた人々の記憶に生き続づけた。その言葉が記録されるとき、その解釈をめぐって、分派が生まれた。小乗仏教と大乗仏教、法華経と華厳経そして般若経と維摩経などの書物が生まれた。

　６世紀に日本に渡来した仏教は７世紀の後半から、政権の支持を受け、国家宗教となっていった。８世紀の天平時代、平城京にシルクロードを通じてヨーロッパ、インド文化や中国の文化が一斉に流入し、正倉院宝物堂にある品々が日本にもたらされた。華厳経を中心とした仏教は、天皇皇室の仏教、国家仏教となり、祈祷や読経そして壮大な伽藍や様々な色彩の仏具が飾られ、きらびやかな大仏の建造が行われた。　奈良時代の後半、空海は時の政権に認められ、布教を進める。高野山に密教の修行場を開き、やがて京都の東寺を根本道場として、教王護国寺と改める。そして毎年正月に、宮中で天下安泰と天皇の身体の安穏を祈る法会が行われた。

　空海は、「秘密曼陀羅十住心論」で以下のように述べている。意識の段階として第一段階の愚かな凡夫から、第二段階で道徳心が芽生え、第三段階の幼児のように宗教心が生まれ、安心感が生まれる。第四段階で、仏の教えを聞いて悟るもの、第五段階は、仏の教えに頼らず自ら悟るもの、第六段階で、利他の心が生まれ、第七、八段階で大乗仏教の一切のものは清浄で対立せず一如であるという法華経の世界に達し、第九段階が顕教の最高の段階、華厳宗に達する。第十が密教の世界で、自分の中にある悟り、秘密曼陀羅に至る。この菩薩心と一体となった状態が秘密荘厳心であるとした。

　では、その理想の境地に達するにはどうしたらいいのか。仏にならい、仏に近づく生きかたをする。これによって、大日如来と自己を合体させる。般若心経では「行け、行け、彼岸に行け、すべての人が悟りを開く」という有名な真言（マントラ）が語られる。

「即身成仏義」の中で、即身成仏は加持祈祷を行うことであり、護摩を焚き、口に真言（マントラ）を唱え、極彩色の曼陀羅本尊に向かって礼拝し、供養し、念じる。これらの教えは日本の天皇や貴族、庶民にもわかりやすく、流行していった。その反面、仏教本来の宗教精神とはかけ離れた、加持祈祷のみを重視する現世的宗教になっていく。

　奈良時代が終わり、平安時代になると、仏教は貴族仏教となり、より現世的な病気平癒を願う祈祷と、七色たなびく華やかな極楽浄土の世界を夢見る浄土信仰となる。仏教の無常感や厭世観は恋物語や権力の喪失による現世的な失意の表現となり、儚く、うつろうものに美を見出す平安貴族の美意識と仏教的世界が結びつき「はかなき」ものや「もののあはれ」が文学作品の底流を作ることとなる。

今の世にし　楽しくあらば　来む世には　虫にも鳥にも　われはなりなむ　

　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　万葉集　　　　　　大伴　旅人　

　万葉歌人にとって、現世が楽しければ、来世は、たとえ虫や鳥になっても構わないと、仏教的輪廻やこの世のはかなさのない、現世謳歌が時代の主流であった。