Legend of the Mythical Land: Gods and Buddhas

 About 10 minutes west of Tottori City on National Route 9, you'll find Shirousagi Beach, famous for its legend of the white rabbit, Inaba. Continuing westward, you'll come across Mt. Daisen and Yumigahaman Peninsula, associated with the legend of the divine ruler. If you proceed further west, you'll eventually reach Izumo Taisha, the Great Shrine of Izumo. This ancient region of Izumo, spanning from present-day Shimane Prefecture to Tottori Prefecture, is the setting for the legends of the powerful clans that once ruled there. It is said that Ōkuninushi no Mikoto governed the Izumo region before eventually transferring rulership to Amaterasu Ōmikami, the Sun Goddess.

Humans possess the remarkable ability to exchange their experiences through the medium of language. This exchange occurs through the art of conversation, and with the advent of written communication, its reach extends both across time and space, expanding the horizons of human interaction. It is in this expansive realm that records are born, and history takes its shape.

At the core of our understanding lies the profound act of ascribing meaning to our environment. This process, rooted in the rich tapestry of symbolic expression, forms the bedrock of human thought. It is within this realm of symbols that the lofty endeavors of the human spirit, encompassing the realms of religion, art, and science, find their genesis. 

Indeed, the very fabric of our existence rebels against a world devoid of significance, for we are driven to imbue events with purpose, weaving intricate cosmologies, worldviews, and societal narratives within the fabric of time and space.Mythology permeates every primal culture, playing a pivotal role in the construction of human symbolism. The divide between the mythical worldview and that of contemporary individuals is not as vast as one might think. Mythology is not merely a whimsical flight of fancy or a product of idle imagination. It was fashioned when humans sought to harness the overwhelming forces of nature surrounding them, when they embarked upon the endeavor to create civilization.

Humans cannot exist in a world devoid of meaning. Put differently, living without religion is an impossibility. Every individual, as well as society itself, harbors the notion of something unseen lurking behind natural phenomena—be it gods, supernatural abilities, or spirits. When we encounter extraordinary occurrences, we attribute meaning to them as the workings of supernatural beings or deities.

As language and consciousness emerged within humans, legends found expression in words, evolving into the narratives of mythology. Eventually, these tales were inscribed in written texts, carrying them forward to future generations.

During the 4th to 5th centuries, a wave of migrants from the continent and the Korean Peninsula arrived in Japan, bringing with them the introduction of Chinese characters. This marked a shift from the oral traditions of the Jomon period to the era of written language. Accounts like the "Records of the Wa People" found in the Wei Zhi, which mention figures like Queen Himiko and the realm of Yamatai, shed light on this period. In ancient Japan, the imperial clan, tracing their lineage back to the western regions and the Izumo clan, gradually subjugated other clans, thereby unifying the land and establishing their political authority in the Yamato region. It was during the reign of Emperor Keitai, the 26th monarch in the imperial lineage, that the ancient Yamato government began to solidify its power.

Once upon a time, during the age of gods, humans and deities coexisted as an inseparable whole. Greek mythology shares many similarities with Japanese mythology. The world was in a state of chaos, from which the goddess Gaia, the Earth, emerged alongside the sky god Uranus, creating the heavens and the earth. In this narrative, the gods behaved much like humans within nature, experiencing a range of emotions and driving the unfolding of stories. In Greece, humans could hear the voices of gods and, like puppets manipulated by them, engaged in battles and made decisions. On the other hand, in Japanese mythology, Izanami and Izanagi created the land of Japan, and gods were akin to humans, actively participating in the world.

In a similar vein to the Greek myth of Orpheus venturing into the underworld to retrieve his wife but breaking the promise not to look back, thus losing her, there is a tale in Japanese mythology where Izanagi goes to the realm of the dead to retrieve his deceased wife, Izanami. However, he witnesses a forbidden sight in the underworld, and upon escaping from Yomi, the land of the dead, Izanagi performs a purification ritual in the sunny lands. In Japan, according to mythology, Yomi was located at Iwaya no Yashiro in Izumo Province, serving as the boundary between the mortal realm and the underworld. Over time, with the advent of Buddhism, this realm of Yomi transformed into the subterranean realm known as "Ne-no-Kuni" or hell.

Izanagi and Izanami gave birth to three noble children: Amaterasu Ōmikami, who was tasked with ruling Takamagahara (the Heavenly Plains); Tsukuyomi no Mikoto, who presided over Yomotsukuni (the Land of Night); and Susanoo no Mikoto, who was given dominion over the seas. However, Susanoo, yearning to be reunited with his departed mother, Izanami, wept and lamented. His actions disrupted the sacred rituals of Amaterasu, leading to his expulsion from that land. Before heading to his place of exile, Susanoo visited Takamagahara to explain his intentions. Fearing that he might seize control of Takamagahara, Amaterasu armed herself and questioned why he was ascending. In response, Susanoo declared that he held no evil or malicious intent within his heart. It is in this story that we glimpse the essence of the pure heart, which has been revered in ancient Japan.

Subsequently, Susanoo, while being banished to the realm of Ne-no-Kuni, where he was seen as a malevolent deity disrupting agriculture, became a hero in the Izumo myth by slaying the fearsome Yamata-no-Orochi. Eventually, Ōnamuji, who rescued the peeled white rabbit, married Susanoo's daughter and established the land of Izumo. The story concludes with him relinquishing the rule of the land to Amaterasu.

The Kojiki, an ancient text, depicts the principles of action of the people and the gods. As symbols of extraordinary power, there are Tama and Kami. Kami encompasses not only noble, virtuous, and courageous beings but also includes malevolent, mysterious, and strange entities. Revered and awe-inspiring, they possess abilities beyond the ordinary, and everything from humans to birds, animals, mountains, rivers, and plants can be considered Kami. Through rituals and spells, the Tama is pacified and purged to ward off extraordinary blessings or calamities from everyday life. By calming the Tama and Kami, purifying with rites, and performing misogi, impurities and spiritual afflictions are cleansed. Alongside the purification of the spirit, impurities are washed away through the act of cleansing. This meaning of purification by misogi symbolizes the ancient prototype of thought in ancient Japan, which has been inherited by Shinto.

It is believed that these practices formed the basis of ancient Japanese thinking and were passed down to Shinto, thus becoming an integral part of the nation's cultural heritage.

By the 3rd century AD, a transition from pure sorcery to ritualistic practices became evident. It marked a shift from sorcerers dispelling calamities and inviting blessings through a world of fortune and misfortune, where humans defying the divine order faced disasters, equating them with sin and the birth of moral consciousness. This evolution led to a transformation in the supplication and worship of spirits into prayers and reverence directed towards the gods. From prayers to the gods, ceremonies gradually emerged as symbols of divine faith.

As sorcery transformed into ritual, the role of the Emperor evolved into the highest priest of Shinto, conducting ceremonies and rituals. Shinto priests were dispatched by the Emperor to oversee the operation of shrines and perform sacred rites, leading to the development of Shinto.

The Nihon Shoki, or "The Chronicles of Japan," records the existence of countless deities predating the introduction of Buddhism. Buddhism officially arrived in Japan around 552 AD when Emperor Kinmei received a set of Buddhist paraphernalia and scriptures as an offering from King Seong of Baekje. In the Nihon Shoki, it raises the question, "Shall we accept the appearance of the Buddha, which has never been seen before? Should we pay homage or not?" Soga no Umako, a powerful minister, proclaimed that Japan had no opposition to Buddhism. On the other hand, the Mononobe clan argued, "We should continue worshiping the 180 gods of heaven, earth, and the imperial ancestors throughout the four seasons. If we now begin to worship foreign gods, we may incur the wrath of our national gods." They opposed its acceptance.

 During that time, the Soga clan gained power over the Mononobe clan and officially recognized Buddhism in Japan.Supported by the Soga clan, Prince Shotoku, under his Seventeen-Article Constitution, implemented a policy that revered the Three Treasures of Buddhism: the Buddha, the Dharma, and the Sangha. Over time, the clan's Buddhism gradually transformed into a state religion, with the emperor serving as its protector. Within the Seventeen-Article Constitution, the existence of Japan as a nation and the authority of its politics were emphasized through Buddhist and universalistic principles of justice. In this manner, the indigenous beliefs of Japan found support in Buddhist ideology, spreading throughout the entire land.

Japanese animism and Haiku Birth of humans language

 "In all their glory, orchids bloom, under the daytime star so clear, mushrooms spring from the earth in bloom.”

                                                                                                     kyosi Takahama

Living organisms have evolved to perceive and adapt to various noises and information from the environment on Earth through their nervous systems and the five senses. Amoebas perceive and respond to pleasure and discomfort by approaching or distancing themselves from stimuli. Frogs perceive the world as being composed of rapidly moving shadows and instinctively catch prey or leap accordingly. As mammals, they recognize objects existing in space and act accordingly to feed and live. Herbivores move in search of food, plants or fodder, while carnivores move and hunt for those herbivores.

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humans and their primate counterparts, such gorillas, lived in the forests like their companions in the African savanna.While spatial awareness was well developed,the concept of time did not exist.To adapt to new environments outside of the African savanna ,Homo sapiens, human developed language.

Language cuts, fits, and organizes the world, allowing us to create infinite new things through the use of metaphors. This symbolic manipulation gave birth to a cosmology with space and time. Humans began to construct time in the same way they do with space, enabling them to reference the past, anticipate the future, and acquire the ability to prepare for it. The capacity to abstractly recall and conceptualize events that have never occurred, treating them as if they were real experiences, enabled the creation of the future.

This extends to imagining oneself in a world beyond one's own existence. Contemplating one's family after death, considering how one will be evaluated or whether they will be held in esteem, gives rise to a perspective on life and death. Death is seen as the soul departing the body and being reborn in another world. Eventually, it becomes evident that one's body is not solely their own. It is connected to the deceased and the remaining individuals. This connection is fostered through practices like lighting fires during the Bon Festival, and the narrative of reincarnation and the cycle of life emerges.

Moreover, humans gain the ability to imagine, understand, and empathize with others and treat them with the same consideration as themselves.

For humanity, the initial cosmology perceived time as an infinite cycle of interconnectedness, repetitions, and patterns. The entire world was seen as a small, enclosed space where events were perceived to rhythmically repeat and recur. During the Jomon period, a life dominated by hunting, characterized by instability, solitude, and dependence on chance, gave rise to a worldview governed by this perception. When faced with unsolvable problems, narratives and rituals were born to make them comprehensible and provide solutions.

In this Jomon period's mystical worldview, everything possessed spirits that governed the world. Within this world governed by spirits, magic was employed through rituals to imbue prey with supernatural powers, attracting and capturing them for sustenance through hunting. After the hunt, efforts were made to appease the spirits of the slain animals, seeking protection from their vengeance and praying for blessings to ensure success in future hunts.

This practice persisted until recently in the Ainu bear festival. Participants would sing and dance, performing a dance that symbolized the killing of a bear. They would actually strangle and kill a bear, then worship its spirit, offering gratitude, solace, and ultimately consuming its meat. This ceremony, known as "Iyomante," remained a sacred ritual until recent times. In Ainu society, bears were considered both primary deities and a vital food source, while also being formidable creatures that could pose a threat to humans. The act of killing the bear, consuming its meat, and comforting its spirit encompassed the paradoxical nature of this relationship, bringing a sense of tranquility to the conflicting emotions through the practice of magic and ritual.

Language, once it emerged, shaped the world in which we reside through its symbolic function. The concept of the "real world" is constructed based on the linguistic customs of a particular community. During the Jomon period, as seen in present-day Papua New Guinea, language varied from region to region and was not unified as Japanese. Language not only serves as a means to express the external world and transmit information through words but also plays a role in metonymy, where the original meaning is replaced by a different concept within the same language.

 It is through this linguistic ability in human beings that art emerged alongside magic. Jomon pottery, which served as artistic creations of that era, was not characterized by small and harmonious styles. Instead, it exhibited asymmetry, dynamic patterns, and a three-dimensional composition, going beyond flatness. The patterns depicted on the pottery became art imbued with a sense of the magical.

During the Jomon period, which lasted for over ten thousand years, people looked up at the stars and moon in the sky and lived surrounded by the forests of Jomon. They relied on hunting and gathering for their livelihoods, and in coastal regions, they thrived on the abundant resources from the sea. They worshipped the moon in nature, revered living creatures, and shaped their way of life based on an understanding of the animistic world. The practice of magic, aimed at harmonizing the conflicts between the celestial and earthly realms, as well as the creation of monumental artworks, played significant roles in their lives.

In the Japanese archipelago, the culture of the Jomon period, with its ritual system, encountered a new influx of people, the Yayoi, from the continent, who brought with them the use of Chinese characters. People migrated to the Japanese archipelago through various routes. Subsequently, the introduction of rice cultivation led to the establishment of settled communities, and the scattered populations across Japan eventually coalesced into a unified country. It was within this context that mythology and religion emerged as narratives that bound together the communities.

With the transmission of writing, these communities began recording their traditions and cultures, creating belief systems to preserve and transmit their cultural heritage. Buddhism also arrived, and as the diverse communities across the archipelago became unified, ancient animistic beliefs and magic gradually gave way to the incorporation of religion into society. Over time, within the unique cultural landscape of Japan, Shinto and Buddhism merged, and Confucianism, along with other beliefs, became intertwined and underwent transformations.

In the subsequent history of Japanese religion, Ryunosuke Akutagawa described in "The Smiles of the Gods" that "the political philosophy of Laozi and the teachings of Confucianism, born out of fierce struggles with reality, as well as the teachings of the Buddha on the cyclical nature of rebirth and resignation, and the dream of Christ rejecting reality to pursue eternity—all of these have quietly been absorbed within the beautiful scenery and gentle climate over the course of two thousand years." Thus, the spiritual history of Japan's worldview was born.

As human brains developed, language emerged, allowing us to perceive and understand the world through the power of metaphor. This enabled us to analogize with animals, plants, stones, and nature itself, giving rise to a world of animism where stories, poetry, and art were created. Understanding the world involved embracing an animistic worldview, and the creation of magic, art, and poetry emerged alongside language."One aspect where this remains strongly present today is perhaps in the haiku poetry of the Edo period. In the Manyoshu, there are even instances where snow is described as the incarnation of the ice deity, brought down by a dragon. 

However, subsequent tanka poetry tended to depict more realistic human emotions, gradually distancing itself from nature. During the Edo period, the haiku of Basho and Buson, which were unconventional, revived the expression of Japanese animism, asserting that animals, plants, stones, and the sea possess souls, rather than relying on personification.

Buson's haiku"Behold the springtime sea – an endless flow, a ceaseless becoming, ever the same, ever renewed.”

Bashous haiku "The octopus pot, under the summer moon, harbors fleeting dreams – a testament to our transient existence.

神話の国の物語 オデッセイアと古事記

　 国道９号線を鳥取市から西に１０分ほどでイナバのシロウサギ伝説の白兎海岸が見られ、そのまま西へ走ると国引き伝説の大山と弓浜半島、さらに西に進むと出雲大社にたどり着く。この古代出雲地方の伝説、出雲神話は現在の島根県から鳥取県にかけて支配した豪族の物語で、出雲地方は大国主命が治め、その後天照大神に国譲りしたと記されている。

　人は言葉によって経験を互いに交換できる。それが会話であり、文字の発明によってそれが、時間的にも空間的にも拡大する。そして記録が生まれ、歴史が生まれた。

人間は、環境への意味をつけて理解する。この意味ずけ、シンボルの世界が思想の底辺にあり、宗教や芸術、科学などの人間精神の高度の活動様式はシンボルの世界の産物である。人間は全く無意味な混沌の世界には耐えられない。出来事を、時間と空間の中に意味ずけて、宇宙像、世界像、世間像を作る。

　神話はあらゆる原始文化に存在し、人間のシンボルの構築に大きな役割をはたす。神話的世界像と現代人の世界像の間にはそれほどの隔たりはない。神話は、たんなる気まぐれの幻想、思いつきの所産ではない。人間が自己をとりまく圧倒的自然をコントロールしようとしたとき、すなわち人間が文明をつくったとき、神話は造られた。

　人間は意味ない世界に生きられない。言いかえれば宗教のない世界で生きてゆくことはできない。いかなる人も社会も自然的事象の背後に潜む見えない何ものか、神々、超人的能力、精霊の観念を持っている。われわれが非日常的なことに遭遇したときそれを、超自然的な精霊や神々のからの働きかけとして、これを意味ずける。

　人間に言葉と意識が生まれ、伝説は言語化され、神話の物語となる。そしてそれが書物となり後の世に伝わる。

　４世紀から５世紀にかけて、大陸や朝鮮半島から渡来人が、日本にやってきて漢字が入ってくる。こうして縄文以来の語り部の言葉から、文字の時代になる。魏志倭人伝の卑弥呼や邪馬台の記載はこのころのことで、古代、日本社会では天皇氏が他の氏族を征服していく、天皇の祖先が日本の西から、出雲一族など異族集団を打ち破りしだいに日本を統合して大和に政権を打ち立てた。６世紀古代の大和政権は継体天皇（２６代）の代で確立しつつあった。

　昔々、神の時代は人間と神は渾然として一体であった。ギリシャ神話は、日本の神話とかなり似たところがある。世界はカオスであった。そこから大地の女神ガイアが生まれ、天空の神ウラノスとともに天地を創造した。そして、自然の中で神々が人間と似たように振舞い、喜怒哀楽を持って、物語を展開する。そしてそのギリシャでは神の声を人間は聞いて、そのあやつり人形のように戦い、決断する。一方、日本の神話では、イザナミとイサナギが日本の大地を創造する、神は人であり、神がそこでは人間と同じように活躍する。

　ギリシャ神話のオルフェウスが妻を取り戻しに冥界に行って、後ろを振り返らないという約束を破ったために妻を失う物語同じように、死亡した妻イザナミを取り戻しに行ったイザナギが冥界でみてはいけない姿を見た、そしてイザナギは黄泉の国から逃げ帰り、日向でミソギをした物語がある。日本では、その黄泉の国は、神話では、出雲国のイフヤ坂にあり、この世との境になっていた。この黄泉の国はやがて仏教が入ってきてから、地下の根の国になり、地獄になった。

　イサナギとイザナミが３貴子を生み、天照大神に高天原、月読命に夜の食国、タケハヤスサノオに海原の統治を命じた。　イサナギとイザナミのこどもスサノオのみことは亡き母イザナミのもとに帰りたいと言って泣きわめく。その暴行でアマテラスの神聖な祭儀を壊したとしてその地からの追放の刑に処される。追放地に向かう前にスサノオは事情を説明するため高天原を訪れる。アマテラスは高天原を奪うのではないかと恐れ、完全武装して、なぜ登ってくるのかと聞く。それに対して、私の心には邪心なく、また異心なしと答える。ここに日本古来からの清き心の大切さの源流を見る。　

　その後、スサノオは農耕を荒らす悪神として、根の国に追放されながら、出雲神話ではヤマタノオロチを退治する英雄となる。やがて、皮をはがれた白兎を助けた大国主命が、スサノオの娘と結婚して出雲国をつくる物語となる。そしてアマテラスに国を譲る。　

　古事記の中には、古代人、神々の行動原理が描かれている。非日常的な力を表すものとして、タマとカミがあり、カミは尊いもの、善いもの、勇ましいもののみでなく、悪しきもの、怪しいもの、奇妙なものを含んでいる。尋常を超えて能力を持つも、畏るべきものは、人、鳥獣、山川草木などすべてがカミである。非日常的な祝福や災厄を日常から追い払う、呪術によってタマを鎮め、それを祓う。タマ、カミを鎮めタタリ、ケガレをミソギでキヨメる。精霊のタタリとともにツミもミソギによって洗い流される。みそぎによって、自然現象も罪も洗い流されるキヨメの意味となる。これが日本古来の、古代人の思考の原型を作り、神道に受け継がれたと考えられる。

　紀元３世紀になると、純粋な呪術から祭儀への発展が見られる。　呪術師による災厄の除去と、福の招来の、吉凶世界から人間が神々の秩序に逆らい災厄が起こる、それが罪であるという意識、善悪が誕生し、精霊から神々に対する祈願や崇拝に変化してくる。神々に対する祈願から、やがて儀礼が、神々の信仰の象徴になる。　呪術から祭儀となり、後には、天皇は神道の最高祭祀者として、祭祀や儀式を執り行う役割を担い、神道の神職も天皇から派遣され、神社の運営や神事を行なっていくことになり、神道へと発展していく。　

　

　日本書紀には、仏教伝来以前の八百万の神の存在が記載されている。日本の仏教は、５５２年頃に百済の聖明王から仏具と経典一式が献上されたことで公式には伝来する。日本書紀には「西蕃の献れる仏の相貌端巌し。全ら未だ曾て有ず。礼ふべきや不や。」と問われ、蘇我大臣は日本だけが、仏教に反対することはないと言い、物部氏は、「天地社稷の百八十神を以って、春夏秋冬、祭拝りたまふことを事とす。方に今改めて蕃神を拝みたまはば、恐らくは国神の怒りを致したまはむ。」受け入れに反対した。そのころ蘇我氏が物部氏に勝って権力を得て、仏教を日本で公認した。

　この蘇我氏に擁立された聖徳太子の１７条の憲法で仏法僧の三宝を敬う政策で、氏族の仏教は次第に国家仏教、すなわち天皇の鎮護する宗教となってきた。１７条の憲法の中で、日本国の存在、政治の権威もまた、仏教的、普遍的な正義を強調している。こうして、日本古来の思想は仏教的思想に支えられ、全土に広がって行く。

徳川時代の儒教

 　徳川家康は、幕府を開いたとき、仏教を無力化し、キリスト教も弾圧した。そして国家統治の原理は儒教を取り入れ、戦国時代を終わらせる方法としての武力的権力の凍結を行い幕藩体制を固めていった。単なる軍事独裁政権ではない仁政主義すなわち儒教を取り入れ、修身斉家治国平天下の方針をすすめた。

　

　統治のイデオロギーとしての儒学が１４世紀の頃から戦国時代に取り入れられ、戦国大名の統治の哲学として広がってきた。　ヘーゲルは儒教国中国を「一人の専制君主が頂点に位し、ヒエラルキーの多くの階序を通じて、組織的構成をもった政府を指導している。そこでは宗教関係や家事に至るまでが国法によって定められている。個人は道徳的には無我にひとしい」と評していた。

　徳川幕府は戦乱の下克上を終わらせ、幕藩体制の天下泰平の国を作るため、この儒教を活用していった。徳川幕府は儒教の中の朱子学思想を正統とした。朱子学は、仏教の理論に対抗するために、宇宙と人間、人々の倫理までを組織化した。自然の法則と人の行動、宇宙の秩序と社会の秩序が連なり、人々が修身することによって国が治るとした思想であった。

　「心正しくして后身修り、身修りて后家斉ひ、家斉ひて后国治り、国治りて后天下平なり。天子より庶人に至るまで壱に是皆修身を以て本となす。その本乱れて末治るものはあらじ。」と大学巻頭に述べられ、林羅山は「天はおのずから上にあり、地はおのずから下にあり、已に上下位さだまるときは、上はたっとく、下はいやし、自然の理の序のあるところには此上下を見てしるべし、人の心も又かくのごとし、上下たがはず貴賤みだれざるときは人倫ただし、人倫正しければ国家おさまる、国家おさまる時は、王道成就す、これ礼のさかんなうもの也。」

　そして武士の支配の根拠として朱子学者雨森芳洲は「人に四等あり。曰く士農工商。士以上は心を労し、農以下は力を労す。心を労する者は上に在り。力を労するものは下に在り。こころを労するものは心広く志大にして慮遠し、農以下は力を労して自ら保つのみ。顚倒すれば則ち天下小にしては不平、大にしては乱る。」

　藤原惺窩は「人間と生まれ来てより後に人欲というものあり、人欲さかむになれば、明徳おとろへて、かたちは人にして、心はとりけだものに一になる。まづ明徳をあきらかにし、次にこころを誠にし、次にするほどの所作をつつしみて、こころのうちをみがき、其上に五常五倫を偽なくおこなへば、わが身ながら聖人となりて、天道と一体なり」聖人は天の道理、天地自然と合一している。人の道は聖人の境地を修得することとした。

　自然や、世間を見る世界像もまたこの儒教により組み立てられ、仁義礼智信孝悌の徳目は、江戸庶民の世間常識のもととなった。　各藩もこれにならって学問所で教学振興をはかった。そして寺子屋で読み書きが教えられ、それが庶民への儒教普及をうながした。そして出生とか家柄とか年齢が決定的な役割を持ち、何をするかでなく、何であるかが重視される社会であり、武士は武士らしく、町人は町人らしく振る舞うことが求められた。さらに３代将軍家光は家康を東照宮として、神として日光にまつり、日光を伊勢と同等の地位に置いた。

　しかし、朱子学で始まった江戸時代も、儒教の間で論争が起き、変化し、反儒教の思想も生まれてきた。１７５８年朱子学を神道と結びつけた闇斎学を信奉する竹内式部が追放された。彼らの主張は、尊王の思想とともに、倒幕思想を含んでいた。これに対して、幕府は体制の立て直しをはかり１７９０年「寛政異学の禁」で朱子学を幕府の生学とした。それとともに湯島の昌平坂を幕府の学問所として公認した。　儒教でも朱子学の他に、知行合一を主張し行動を重視する陽明学があった。その信奉者、大塩平八郎は大阪で１８３７年に乱をおこした。荻生徂徠は天道と人道を分けて人間の私的活動の領域に寛容な儒教、古学を提唱した。　さらに仁義礼譲孝悌忠信などはもろこしの聖人と呼ばれる人々がつくり、人間をしばりつけてしまったものであるとし、儒教をまっこうから否定する国学なども人々の間に広まってくる。

　１９世紀に入ると、ヨーロッパの大国が世界を支配し、全世界に市場と領土をめぐる争いが展開され始め、日本もその闘争に巻き込まれることになる。こうして徳川時代の儒教の世界は崩れ、様々な西欧文化が急激に日本にやってきた。

　明治政府を樹立した薩長の指導者達は、世界の列強と対等な一等国を目指して国を統一する必要に迫られた。江戸時代の東照宮や儒教を廃止し、王政を復古し日本は天皇が統治する国として東照宮の神を天皇の神にもどした。その根拠として日本書紀の天壌無給の神勅の記述を用いた。江戸時代この神話は中国の伝説上の皇帝と同じように、天照から神武天皇の父の５人の神様は事実ではない、神話であるとされていて、林羅山は神武天皇は古代の豪族の一人であると解釈していた。それに対して、伊藤博文らは　、天皇の神格化をはかり、大日本帝国は万世一系の天皇之を統治するとした。

　こうして明治時代に福沢諭吉が「陰陽の五行の惑溺を払わざれば窮理の道に入るべからず」と文明論之概略で述べたように、儒教文化圏を日本は脱出し、脱亜入欧をはかった。しかし庶民の間には無常観、輪廻転成、仁義忠孝の世界は残った。

AI革命と三島由紀夫の文化防衛論

 　

「われわれは、護るべき日本の文化、歴史、伝統の最後の保持者であり、最終の代表者であり、且つその精華であることを以って自ら任ずる。よりよき未来社会を暗示するあらゆる思想とわれわれは尖鋭に対立する。」

　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　文化防衛論　　　　　三島由紀夫

日本の著名な小説家三島由紀夫は、その多くの小説を残し、劇的な自刃の行為のため、今でも、多くの人がその思想や行動の謎の解明を試みている。

　三島由紀夫など戦中派世代は戦争の只中にあり、戦争に対して冷静な距離を取りようがなかった、戦後は、自分は本来戦死するべきであったという罪悪感、survivor guiltを抱えていた。

　　三島由紀夫は語る、　「このフィクションを十代に経験し、抑圧された下層（戦中）から内圧が上層（戦後）を破壊し、構造自体を崩壊させて一元化した。私は生来、どうしても根治しがたいところの、ロマンチックの病を病んでいるのかもしれない。このロマンチックとは死への誘惑であり、十代のノスタルジアであった。」

　そのノスタルジアとは「戦争のことは、あるやましい浄福の感情なしには想いおこせないものである。それは異教的な秘宴の記憶、聖別された犯罪の陶酔感をともなう回想である。およそ地上においてありえないほどの自由、奇蹟的な放恣と純潔、アコスミックな美と倫理の合致がその時代の様式であり、透明な無為と無垢の凶行との一体感が全地をおおっていた。

　それは永遠につづく休日の印象であり、悠久な夏の季節を思わせる日々であった。神々は部族の神々としてそれぞれに地上に降りて闘い、人間の深淵、あの内面的苦悩は、この精妙な政治的シャーマニズムの下では、単純に存在しえなかった。第一次大戦のの体験者マックス　ウェーバーの言葉でいえば、そのような陶酔を担保したものこそ、実存する「死の共同体」に他ならない。夭折は自明であった。「すべては許されていた。」

　そして、次第に神的天皇との一体化に突き進んでいく。共に死すべき朋友たちとの死の共同体はすでになく、何らかの絶対者に命を捧げることも不可能である戦後を、「私の中の２５年を考えると、その空虚に今さらびっくりする。私はほとんど生きたとはいえない。鼻をつまみながら通りすぎたのだ。」

「道すがら考うれば、何とよくからくった人形ではなきや。糸を附けてもなきに、歩いたり、飛んだり、はねたり、言語迄言うは上手の細工なり。されど、明年の盆祭に客にぞなるべき。さてもあだな世界かな。忘れてばかり居るぞ。」天下泰平の葉隠の武士に自らを重ね合わせて見ている。

「憂国」での、昭和テロ事件を題材とした自死から、「英霊の声」で、戦中のイデオロギー、天皇の戦争、散華の思想が非合理だとしても絶望的状況では、それを信じ、行動するしかなかった若者を描いた。そして戦後、このイデオロギーを推進した人々が、自分たちはそんな思想は信じていなかったとして天皇制を変更した。では、特攻隊員の死は一体何だったのかと問いかけた。そして戦後再び、天皇という神を創り出す努力の結果を「文化防衛論」で論評した。

  そこでは、理想の天皇制を、神や自然より、日本の精神、日本の文化に力点を置いて、日本の共同体のありようを定義し、創り出そうと訴えた。

　　アメリカは世界各国の異なる文化的背景から、人々が集まり、個人の人権や自由を重視したリベラリズムと選挙と法の支配による民主主義を柱にして国を作った。日本は、第二次世界大戦の敗北の後、このシステムを取り入れた。戦前の国体神話はフィクションとなった。そして国家もそのフィクションに支えられていた。明治政府は、世界の強国と対等に渡り合うために立憲君主制の憲法のもとに、天皇を神格化して、宗教化した。昭和時代もこの信念の体系の下で人々は生活し、行動した。敗戦によりこの国家神話は廃棄された。

　言葉は、人類文化におけるコンピューターのオペレイティング　システムにあたるもので、宗教もことばによって支えられている。。宗教は言葉に始まる神々の物語を記録して聖典となり、これらから、芸術や政治も造られ、何千年もかけて人類の文化を築き上げてきた。

人々はその文化のもとで生まれ育ち。価値観を身につけ、世界を理解してきた。人間が言葉を使い、それぞれの言語でそれぞれの民族は世界を表現し世界観を作ってきた。世界の多くの国は民族の神話などの宗教に似た、民族の物語によってあるいは強固な思想に基づいて造られてきた。

　小説や詩などの文学は、言葉を並べて、類比し、比喩として使い、つなぎ合わせ組み合わせることによって詩を創り、物語をうみ出す。　江戸時代上田秋成は、雨月物語の初めに、小説とはありもしない嘘物語で、作者はそのため業の報いを受けたと書き、　寺山修司は、「俳句にのめりこむにつれて、寺山はなりふりかまわわず他人の作品から言葉やイメージを盗ることに汲々し出した。自分の存在を誇示することに賭けていた寺山は、少しも臆することなく、他人の作品の言葉やイメージを素手で鷲掴みにしては、自分の言葉とイメージに育て上げ、ひたすら書きつ続けたものである。他人の作品の原型をとどめていようが、いまいが。」とまるで現在、AIのしていることを思わせる創作方法をとって数々の傑出した短歌を創り出した。演劇でも様々な芸術からイメージをコラージュして新たな作品を上演した。また　デヴィット　ピースという作家は、芥川龍之介の作品を、コラージュ風に使い、龍之介幻想という小説を試みた。さらに、アメリカのハリウッドでAIがシナリオを書く行為の排除を求めるストライキが脚本家達から起こった。

　人は妄想の物語を、自ら作り出す。ラカンはエメという症例の中で「作家志望であった彼女は、同僚たちの話から、ある女優が自分の息子を殺そうとしている妄想を構築し、彼女を短刀で刺そうとして傷つける事件を起こす。そしてその行為を自ら自己処罰だと認識した後、妄想は消える。」人は妄想や、思想に従って行動を起こす。

　AIを使った、小説や脚本はすでにかけるレヴェルまで達している。小説家も詩や俳句の作家も多くの作品を理解することによって新たな物語を創作する。人工知能も同じように膨大なデーター知識をコラージュして作品を創作する。もし人工知能が宗教や政治的信念の体系をうまく作り上げてしまったら、信じやすい人の心にどのような影響が及ぶのか。この能力をAIが獲得するのではないかといった危惧は今でも指摘されている。そして、宗教や信念の体系もすべて言語によって形成されたもので、人を行動に駆り立てる。この人間の文化をAIが作り出したら、今の社会は防衛できるのか、現在は新たな文化防衛論が必要な時代なのかもしれません。

Osho Ikkyu

　In the realm where all things fade to naught,

　They speak of emptying, a profound thought.

　Returning to the essence of our kind,

　To embrace the void, our souls aligned.

• 　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　"Ikkyu's Skeleton”          

 Ashikaga Yoshimitsu, the third shogun of the Muromachi shogunate, weakened the power of regional governors by exploiting their conflicts, climbed the ranks of the bureaucracy, and sought to establish the authority of the Ashikaga family in the samurai class by adopting a courtly lifestyle. He assumed the authority over land grants to aristocrats and temples, effectively replacing the emperor, and incorporated the imperial court through a policy of unity between the imperial court and the shogunate.

Furthermore, Yoshimitsu attempted to establish his control over Japan by receiving the title of King from the Emperor of Ming China. In 1401, he informed the Emperor of Ming that he had unified the country and expressed his desire for trade and diplomatic relations. The following year, he received a reply stating, "From the King of Japan, Minamoto no Michiyoshi, who holds loyalty and love for the royal family in his heart, and who wishes to send an envoy to your court, crossing over the waves and tides.”

Ikkyu was born in 1394 as the son of Emperor Go-Komatsu, whom Yoshimitsu supported as the Emperor of the Northern Court. The year after the completion of the Golden Pavilion, at the age of 5, Ikkyu was ordained at the Zen temple Ankokuzan. 

At the age of 8, in front of a Chinese-style folding screen with a tiger painting, he was told by the shogun, "Try to catch this tiger," to which he replied, "Then please chase away that tiger." This anecdote took place in the splendid residence of Yoshimitsu. Yoshimitsu accumulated wealth through trade with Ming China, acquiring rare gold and silver tableware, leopard-patterned fur chairs, and paintings of climbing dragons. He adorned his surroundings with these decorative items and lived in luxury.

At the age of 17, Ikkyu became a disciple of the monk Ken'o at Saikinji Temple. In Kyoto, the influence of the Nichiren sect was strong, while in the provinces, the teachings of the Jodo Shinshu sect, also known as Ikkoshu, had permeated the common people. On the other hand, Zen Buddhism, which had spread among the warrior class during the Kamakura period, was highly regarded by the Muromachi shogunate. However, Zen Buddhism in the capital had become compromised by ingratiating itself with those in power, and many zealous Zen monks who imitated Chinese customs emerged. They served as envoys for the shogunate and wrote official documents, and some of them were focused on accumulating wealth.Seeking the true Zen master and escaping from the capital, at the age of 22, Ikkyu visited the hermitage of Kaso in Katata, Shiga. He became a disciple of Kaso, leading a life of simplicity, practicing and receiving the name Ikkyu.

Resting on the path without leaks, let the rain fall, let the wind blow.

(From the world of attachments, I return to the world beyond attachments. And along the way, I take a break.)

In the world of Zen, both the spiritual realm and the mundane world are important. One cannot solely live on the path to enlightenment, so one returns to the secular world and immerses oneself in its complexities. When entangled in the secular world, one distances oneself from attachments and immerses oneself in the spiritual realm beyond them.

 It is in this space between the two worlds that one takes a breath. This is what Ikkyu sought.

Ten years ago, discerning mind, anger and pride still present. The crow laughs, the arhat fruit beyond dust, the chanting of the radiant sunlit face.

Ikkyu attained enlightenment at the age of 27. Late on a summer night, he boarded a small boat and engaged in solitary meditation. In the dark night, he heard the cry of a crow. At that moment, a ten-year-old question was instantly resolved, and he reached the state of an arhat. Returning to the temple, he composed a poem and conveyed this experience to his master.

At the age of 34, after his master's passing, the enlightened Ikkyu left the hermitage and returned to the town. In Ikkyu's era, there was no reverence for the emperor, no trust in politics, and even religious institutions like Zen had fallen into corruption. It became a time when knowledge and social status held no sway in the town, revealing the raw essence of humanity. 

Ikkyu wandered from one small hermitage to another in the town. During this time, he encountered many people, including members of the imperial family, samurai, townspeople, farmers, scholars, poets, and courtesans. They gathered around Ikkyu, and his cultural salon came into existence. He vehemently criticized the degenerate Zen that had fallen into traditional and stagnant forms, and compiled the "Jikai Shu" as a collection of self-reflections.

Eating to satisfy cravings, the title is "Greed comes"

In the gathering, I am highly favored like a plum blossom

Seizing gold with skill, the wheel turns swiftly

The virtuous person indeed loves wealth abundantly

Yoso (Kaso) changed his name to Soyo, and made a living by obtaining a certification for it. His disciples boasted as if praising a plum blossom. The means of acquiring wealth are as swift as the turning wheel. The virtuous person is indeed fond of wealth.

Hosoyo's descendants know nothing of Zen

Who will speak of Zen in front of this mad cloud?

For thirty years, burdens on my shoulders have been heavy

Alone, I carry the burden of Shogen's Zen

Hosoyo's disciples are all ignorant of Zen. Who can speak of Zen in my presence? For thirty years, I have carried the burden of Shogen's Zen heavily on my shoulders, alone.

Residing in the hermitage for ten days, my mind is busy

Under my feet, the red thread is excessively long

If someday you come to see me, my lord,

Please visit the fish market, the tavern, or perhaps the pleasure quarter.

The letter I sent to Soyo expressed that the ten days spent in this temple were busy days. The red thread entangling my feet is excessively long, so I am leaving from there. If you ever feel inclined to visit me, my lord, please consider stopping by the fish market, the tavern, or maybe even the pleasure quarter.

From the age of 62, Ikkyu rebuilt Myoshinji Temple and named it Shuon-an, using it as a base for spreading the teachings. Tea master Murata Shuko, performers of Noh and Kyogen, practitioners of the tea ceremony, and masters of renga visited Ikkyu. These individuals, by rejecting the culture of the imperial court represented by Hana no Gosho in the Kitayama period, gave birth to the beginnings of indigenous Japanese culture, which encompassed not only poetry and Noh but also the tea ceremony and residential architecture that continue to exist today.

In 1457, in his work "The Skeleton," Ikkyu wrote, "In the first place, at what time did this happen? It occurred in a dream, in the form of a skeleton. Who was that person? It was a skeleton wrapped in five-colored skin. When dealing with it, there is no distinction of gender. When alive, the skin cannot be torn; thus, there is no color.”

Eventually, when people die and their skin decays and disappears, emotions also vanish, and the hierarchy of social status in life becomes irrelevant. Human beings are merely moving about with skin covering these skeletons.

"Though the body may die, the soul does not die. This is a great mistake. The concept of Buddha is an empty space. Return to the field of one's fundamental duty in the entire land of heaven, earth, and country.”

At the age of 73, in 1467, the Ōnin War broke out, lasting for eleven years. During this time, Ikkyu fled from Kyoto to Nara and Osaka. The Ōnin War was triggered by the decline of Buddhist teachings, the deterioration of court ceremonies and etiquette, and the weakness of the shogunate, leading to internal divisions and conflicts among samurai clans without a just cause or legitimate motive. The war ended without a clear victor. In the midst of this turmoil, at the age of 76, Ikkyu encountered Mori Sammi, a blind traveling performer, and they lived together. Ikkyu left a letter expressing his deep gratitude to Mori Sammi. In the collection "Kyounshuu," he is referred to as "Yaku Miroku Geijo" and is considered to have received the grace of the Maitreya belief.

Withering wood, falling leaves, returning to spring once more

Evergreen, blooming flowers, the covenant of the past and the new

If I forget the profound favor of Mori

In countless kalpas, I will be confined to the realm of animals

Ikkyu became a Zen monk and repented. He shattered rituals, ranks, forms, and common sense, focusing on the root of life and contemplating the true essence of human existence through Zen practice. He lived an unconventional and radical life.

In 1474, at the age of 81, he became the abbot of Daikokuji Temple and passed away in 1481.

"Yukio Mishima's 'Running Horse’

 

"Yukio Mishima's 'Running Horse’"

Yukio Mishima depicted an era without the framework of post-war peace, freedom, and a global perspective in his work "The Sea of Fertility.”

The first part, "Spring Snow," begins with sepia-toned photographs of the Russo-Japanese War, portraying the tragic love story of the protagonist, Kiyoaki Matsugae, in the Taisho era's aristocratic society. The second part, "Running Horse," follows the protagonist's reincarnation, Isao Iinuma, and unfolds in the tumultuous year of 1932 (Showa 7) in Japan.

Isao  Iinuma visits Lieutenant Horie of the Army. "Upon seeing Lieutenant Horie's smiling face, Isao thought he should have visited this place during the surpassing cherry blossom season. Lieutenant Horie returned from the dust-filled training ground, resembling a yellowish sky, took off his dust-covered boots with cherry blossom petals and, on his khaki military uniform shoulder and collar, adorned with a youthful red and golden brilliance, he should have welcomed the young boys," the narrative describes.

Lieutenant Horie then asks Isao, "What is it that you aspire to?" Isao responds, "To establish the Divine Wind League of the Showa era." When further asked about his deepest desires, Isao confesses, "To perform self-disembowelment on a cliff at sunrise, overlooking the shining sea, at the foot of a vigorous pine tree.”

In response to Isao's devotion to the Divine Wind League, Honda, in a letter, cites the example of Aritomo Yamagata, who faced persecution while establishing schools for the spread of Christianity and sought refuge in Kyoto, eventually founding Doshisha University. Honda criticizes the confusion between the purity of sentiment and the conflation of history, stating that "studying history is not about extracting certain forms from a single era of the past and fitting them into a partial form of the present while shouting with joy.”

The phantom dream of the irrational activist becomes a "beautiful ball that changes colors" and is kicked into the cold but orderly world of legal and architectural rationality, shaking the conviction of rationalist Shugekuni Honda.

Isao Iinuma, in his pursuit of the Divine Wind League of the Showa era, attempts to strike a blow against the corrupt political and economic circles with his comrades. However, he is arrested before executing his plan, undergoes a trial, and is released. After his release, he carries out the assassination of Kuranosuke Kurahara, the puppet master of the business world, and commits seppuku (ritual suicide) alone. The story concludes with the sentence, "Just as the blade pierced his abdomen, the sun disk rose brilliantly behind his eyelids." 

The overflowing emotions transcend rational judgment and intellectual restraint, propelling action like a running horse.

The Divine Wind League rebellion sought to defend the spirit of the nation and aimed to restore the Emperor's role as the supreme priest, opposing the Sword Abolishment Edict and advocating for the reinstatement of the Emperor as the central figure in religious ceremonies, reminiscent of ancient times. 

In 1876, they attacked the government institution known as Kumamoto Garrison. Carrying a sword symbolized Japan as a divine country, and swords and spears were considered sacred treasures. Discarding them was seen as a denial of the nation's customs. They attempted armed attacks against the Meiji government using swords and spears. However, they were suppressed by the government's firearms, and many chose to commit suicide. At the time, it was referred to as a rebellious act of a mystical secret society inspired by divine intervention.

　the early Showa period, the Imperial Way Faction of the Army, symbolized by cherry blossoms, khaki military uniforms, and red and gold emblems, also took action with the aim of establishing a people's state under the Emperor's leadership. They were suppressed by the government forces led by the Emperor, and their actions were considered a coup by extremist factions within the military.

The code of Bushido began with the honor and pride of the samurai of the Kanto region, the master-servant relationship, and the code of conduct for warriors adapting to different situations.

 In the peaceful Edo period, where there was no combat, it remained as an extreme form known as "Hagakure." In the 18th century, after a hundred years of peace since the era of civil wars, it became a time of tranquility known as "People are all going to Edo as autumn ends." Even young samurai from the Nabeshima domain became preoccupied with fashionable clothing and personal gain calculations. 

In response to this trend, Hagakure spoke of the samurai spirit that did not exist in the reality of the Edo period. It mythologized memories of the warriors from the Warring States period and was considered an extreme oral expression of radical ideology at the time.

 

Its radical arguments, symbolized by "Bushido is finding something to die for," were not an exaltation of ritual suicide but rather advocated a mindset of preparing for the worst in everyday life. The unconditional absolute loyalty of the samurai to their lord, the bond between ruler and subject, was perceived as a complete purification and unification of one's character, similar to unrequited love being the purest form of romance without calculation. To fulfill their loyalty, it was deemed an obligation to engage in remonstration and make efforts to make the lord a true lord.

This absolute loyalty to the lord was revived during the end of the shogunate period (Bakumatsu). The Bakumatsu period was seen as a reenactment of the late Muromachi period, the era of "Sengoku" (Warring States), where the samurai's honor, autonomous decision-making, and purposeful way of life resurfaced. The actions of the loyalists during the Bakumatsu were based on the concept of "Bushi-do," which advocated Japan's independence and honor alongside the imperial loyalist consciousness. This ideology was shared by not only farmers but also the samurai class, such as village heads and land stewards. They took action to advise the feudal lords and rectify their mistakes.

However, the sentiment of the samurai during the Bakumatsu and early Meiji era disappeared with the suppression of the Saga Rebellion, Shimpuren, and the final battle of the samurai in the Satsuma Rebellion. 

After the Satsuma Rebellion, which took place in the following year, Toshimichi Okubo was assassinated, and the question of how to define the Emperor's position became the next crucial issue for the Meiji government. 

Various factions proposed different ideas, such as a priestly figure of unified religious and political power, a virtuous monarch, a constitutional monarchy under a constitution, or even a republican system. Ultimately, the Meiji Constitution, a constitutional monarchy under the German-style constitution, was established in 1889 (Meiji 22). The concept of Imperial loyalty transformed into a familial nationalistic view of loyalty to the sovereign, and the samurai's loyalty to their lord, which was based on human connections, disappeared along with the decline of the samurai class.

Human hearts have the power to create any myth, story, or beauty and act upon them. The process by which the protagonist Isao Iinuma's actions are born in the novel "Runaway Horses" can be traced back to the samurai of the Kamakura period. The political ideal was sought in the utopia of ancient religious-political unity. The ideology that had slept during times of peace revived in the chaotic period of the end of the shogunate and further drove radical individuals to action during the Showa period.

Yukio Mishima depicted these sentiments in his novel "Runaway Horses," where in the third part, "The Temple of Dawn," he portrays Isao Iinuma's cycle of reincarnation and discusses the philosophy of Yogacara. In the fourth part, "The Decay of the Angel," he concludes with the following passage: "In the absolute silence, in the utmost solitude, there was nothing else. In this garden, there was nothing. No memories, nothing at all. Honda thought to himself, 'I have come to a place where there is nothing.' The garden basked in the brilliance of a midsummer day, eerily quiet." With these words, he brings an end to the bountiful sea.

 He himself admonished the illusion, acted in pursuit of the illusion, and took his own life.